Location

Paris is located in the heart of a vast sedimentary basin with fertile soils and a temperate climate, the Parisian basin, on a loop of the Seine, between the confluents of the Seine with the Marne and the Oise.

According to the geography of the natural regions of France, the city of Paris is located between the Pays de France (right bank) and the Hurepoix (left bank), the Seine being the boundary between the two regions.

Topography

The ground zero of the roads of France, in front of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris.

In the middle of the Parisian Basin, two islands on the Seine constitute the historic heart of Paris: Saint-Louis Island, the easternmost and Cité Island, the westernmost. The city extends on both sides of the river, on an area about twice as large north, on the right bank, on the south, on the left bank.

Paris within the walls, de facto delimited in 1844 by the Thiers enclosure, then administratively in 1860 by the annexation of communes or their districts, is today separated from its neighboring communes by an artificial border, the boulevard periphery, a 22 mile urban expressway. Road access is via the gates of Paris or the roads and motorways that connect this ring road, the progressive cover of which allows you to better open Paris to its agglomeration.

Beyond Thiers, two large wooded areas were built by Baron Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine from 1853 to 1870, on neighboring communes, before being attached to Paris in 1929: to the west, the Bois de Boulogne (846 hectares, 16th arrondissement) and to the east, the Bois de Vincennes (995 hectares, 12th arrondissement), bringing the city's perimeter to 34.55 miles. Paris also extends over the heliport (15^th arrondissement). More anecdotal, since 1864, the city of Paris owns the estate surrounding the springs of the Seine, 140 miles from the city.

The size of the city of Paris is 105.40 km² (113th place of the municipalities of metropolitan France).

The Boulevard Périphérique measures 34.98 km, giving an area of 84.45 km² in Paris within the walls, excluding the Bois de Boulogne and the Bois de Vincennes.

Its urban unit stretches over 2,845 km² and brings together 10,659,489 inhabitants in 2014, spread over 412 communes of Île-de-France.

The zero point of the roads of France is marked by a slab located in front of Notre-Dame de Paris.

• View of Paris, at dusk, from the Montparnasse Tower.

Hydrography

The Seine crosses the city by forming an arc of circle, entering through the southeast and exiting to the southwest. More than thirty decks allow you to cross it.

• The Pont des Arts and Pont Neuf, two of the most famous bridges in Paris.

The city is also crossed by the Bièvre River, now completely underground, which arrives from the south, and by the Canal Saint-Martin (4.5 kilometers), inaugurated in 1825. It is the terminal part of the Canal de l'Ourcq (60 mi) and the Canal Saint-Denis (4 mi), which opened in 1821 and leads down to the Seine, avoiding the crossing of the city. It supplies the Bassin de la Villette, passes underground under the boulevards Jules-Ferry and Richard-Lenoir and the Place de la Bastille, crosses the port of Arsenal and reaches the Seine upstream of Saint-Louis island.

Once upon a time, the Seine was still receiving another tributary in Paris: the stream of Ménilmontant that crossed the suburbs of Saint-Martin and Saint-Denis, passed behind the Grange-Batelière, continued through the Ville-l'Evêque and le Roule and fell into the Seine to the north of the hill of Chaillot. From the ^16th century, it was transformed into a sewer and became the Great Sewage covered around 1760.

Other rivers have crossed Paris, including the creek du Bac, the ru des Orgueilleux, the darse of the Rouvray bottom, the creek de Gravelle, the creek de Montreuil — also known as the creseau de la Pissotte — or the creek of Saint-Germain.

The city has been marked by numerous floods, the most important of which before the ^twentieth century were 583, 842, 1206, 1280, 1325, 1407, 1499, 1616, 1658, 16 63, 1719, 1733, 1740, 1764, 1799, 1802, 1836, 1844 and 1876. For the recent period, the most important are the Seine flood of 1910, those of 1924, 1955, 1982 and 2016.

Relief

Relief of Paris.

The site of Paris extends around a wide valley encompassing the current course of the Seine, the capture of the Bièvre in the Neolithic era, and the course of the Seine before this capture which formed an arc-de-circle of Bercy at the bridge of the Alma around the Grands Boulevards. This ancient course, which was wandering in multiple arms, was a marshy territory drained in the Middle Ages that was flooded in 1910. This alluvial plain stretches north to the streets of Paradis, Bleue, Lamartine, Saint-Lazare, La Pinière, La Boétie, whose layout corresponds to an ancient ditch that marked the boundary of the censive (see Cens (seigneurial law)) of the Marais Sainte-Opportune.

Beyond the terrain lies the Col de la Chapelle in the east, the Montmartre hill in the center and, on a gentle slope, the wide pass of an altitude of 40 meters to 50 meters between this hill and Chaillot hill. Once past this pass, the slope that slopes down towards the Seine at Levallois-Perret and Clichy corresponds to the districts of Plaine-de-Monceau and Batignolles. On the left bank, the valley extends to the west on the territories of the 7th arrondissement, and to the districts of Grenelle and Javel, to the east on those of the Jardin-des-Plantes, the Salpetrière and the Gare. The altitude of these territories, from 31 meters to 39 meters, is slightly higher than the average level of the river of 26.72 meters.

The erosion between the two rivers, present and old, had allowed the modest insubmersible eminences of Saint-Germain-l’Auxerrois, Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, Saint-Merri, Saint-Gervais, the Moulins Mound and the Mound Saint-Roch to persist on the right bank, largely destroyed during urban planning. The Saint-Gervais monceau is still visible around the church of the same name. The staircases of rue Saint-Bon and rue Cloche-Perce leading to rue de Rivoli and the elevation on a base of the Saint-Jacques Tower, vestige of the former church of the same name, also bear witness to the leveling operations of the Second Empire.

This valley is surrounded by hills that are witness mounds; on the right bank are Montmartre (131 m), Belleville (128.5 m), Ménilmontant (108 m), Buttes-Chaumont (103 m), Passy (71 m) and Chaillot (67 m), and on the Left bank, Montparnasse (66 m), Butte-aux-Cailles (63 m) and Montagne Sainte-Geneviève (61 m). The Col de la Chapelle between the heights of Belleville and the Butte Montmartre is the place where the communication routes to the regions of the north and east, which have been on routes since Antiquity (rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Martin, rue du Faubourg-Poissonnière and their extensions in the 18th arrondissement), then the fluvial canal de l'Ourcence q, Canal Saint-Martin and railway from the Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est stations.

Although several meters embankment in the 13th arrondissement, the underground Bièvre Valley is visible between Sainte-Geneviève, Montparnasse and Montsouris in the west and butte-aux-Cailles in the east.

Moreover, the rubble of Charles V’s rampart, together with the accumulation of rubble, formed a series of small mounds used as fortification elements in the early ^17th century, a stronghold of the Porte Saint-Antoine to the east of the present boulevard Beaumarchais, a stronghold of the Temple north of the present place de la République, Saint-Martin Bastion the butte de Bonne Nouvelle, the butte des Moulins and the butte Saint-Roch. These mounds have also been leveled, with the exception of the Saint-Martin mound at the top of Meslay street and the mound of Bonne Nouvelle, which dominates the surrounding neighborhoods at an altitude of 47 m. In other neighborhoods, the relief has been modified over the centuries by the addition of rubble, the accumulation of demolition materials and debris that raised the ground level in the center of Paris and in the Île de la Cité or by voluntary actions to reduce the hill of the Etoile by 5 m, to soften the slope of the Avenue des Champs-Elysées Elected in the 18th century, from the top of the hill of Chaillot (present place of Trocadéro-et-du-11-November) in the 1860s and from the embankment of the valley of the Bièvre at the beginning of the 20th century.

Geology

Paris is located in the central part of the Parisian basin. This geological complex is a northwest-southeast-southeast oriented basin limited by herbal massifs (Ardenne, Hunsrück, Vosges, Morvan, Massif Central and Massif Armoricain), on which sedimentary land is accumulated. The center of this basin is located in the Brie in Courgivaux to the south of Château-Thierry, 80 km east of the capital. The geology of Paris and its surroundings represents a synthesis of this whole.

The first sediments (sandstone and shale) were deposited on the crystalline base by a shallow sea of Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian (from -540 to -358 million years). After an emersion to Carboniferous and Permian (from -358 to -252 million years), the warm seas invaded the basin depositing micro-organisms forming limestone layers, retreated and returned. These phases of marine transgressions, emersion, interspersed with lacustrine episodes formed beneath the Paris soil, above the oldest deeply buried strata, successive layers of limestone, sand, gypsum, and marsh with a total thickness of approximately 2,500 meters in several cycles.

• Dano-montian cycle, about 60 million years ago. The sea from the west deposits pisolithic limestone (limestone in irregular pea-shaped grains)
• Cycle thanétien from -59 to -55 million years. The Parisian basin is an open gulf in the north in a tropical climate where a limestone bank is formed which absorbs the products of continental erosion.
• Cycle ypresident from -55 to -47 million years. The Parisian basin is covered by a sea in the north and north-west. The anticlinal of Artois was formed at that time separating the Parisian basin from Flanders. Plastic clay from the Central Massif through the rivers flowing into the lagoons settles in the south of the Seine Valley and in the Brie to Provins.
• Cycle lutetien from -47 to -41 million years. The marine deposits reach Houdan and Melun. A new uplift of the anticlinal of Artois separates the Parisian basin from Flanders. This episode is the formation of coarse limestone.
• Ludian cycle from -38 to -34 million years. After an immersion, the sea retreats, giving way to a lagoon depression where streams from the east are thrown. This lake dries up which causes gypsum formation brought by the fresh waters that have washed up the soil of Lorraine.
• Istanbul cycle of -34 to -28 million years. This period is the last time the sea has returned and the sands of Fontainebleau have been laid to rest
• Aquitanian cycle from -23 to -20 million years. This cycle is the last lake episode. The lakes gradually dry up, first temporarily in summer and then definitively. The partially silicfied Beauce limestone was formed at that time.
• Miocene from -20 to -5 million years. After the drying up of Beauce Lake, the region has a humid subtropical climate in which the surface rocks change to form the flint clay and the grinder, and then a cooling area in which the surface is covered with a powder coat brought by the wind, the loess, a mixture of limestone, clay and sand grains that makes limestone plateaus fertile.
• Pliocene from -5 to -2.5 million years (orogenesis). The last folding that affected the Paris soil at the time of the Alpine massif formation determined its current structure forming two northwest-southeast orientation bombs; to the south, the Meudon anticlinal passes through Versailles, Meudon, Châtillon, Bagneux Saint-Maur, sinking west to the east; in the north, an anticlinal by Ronquerolles and Louvres. These bombings surround a syncline, the Saint-Denis pit that passes through Pontoise, Corcheles-en-Parisis, Argenteuil, Villemomble, Rosny-sous-Bois. This set is sloped gently north. The city of Paris is mainly located between these two projections on the syncline of Saint-Denis. This uplift of the basin and the lowering of the sea level due to the glaciations resulted in the collapse of valleys in the recent quaternary period. The Seine, which had a much larger flow rate during the ice age, drew wide meanders. The erosion of the river in this valley led to the emergence of the Montmartre mounds and the hills of Belleville-Ménilmontant.

• Tectonics of Paris and its surroundings
• Paris Basement Cup

These creases and erosion bring out four sedimentary layers corresponding to the four geological structural types of the Parisian basin present in Paris.

• The thick limestone of the lutetia, up to 20 meters thick, stretches from the left bank of the Jardin des Plantes to Vaugirard and Chaillot Hill.
• The limestone of Saint-Ouen under the Monceau plain and the Sainte-Geneviève mountain.
• The Brie Plateau in Belleville and Ménilmontant with limestone trees dating from 35 million years, about 12 meters thick.
• The Beauce Plateau (Stampian) at the top of the Montmartre and Belleville-Ménilmontant Mounds.

Other rocks that have also been exploited for construction are found in the basement: the sands (alluvions) of the Seine, the clays in the Bièvre Valley and Vaugirard, the gypsum in Montmartre and Belleville.

These materials were extracted as limestone, gypsum and stone quarries mainly on the left bank, from Place d'Italie to Vaugirard for limestone, to Montmartre, Belleville and Ménilmontant for gypsum. This exploitation probably dates back to the Roman era and was attested by documents of 1292, and continued until the mid-^19th century, the last being closed in 1860 on the site of the current park of Buttes-Chaumont and the district of Mouzaïa. This extraction has now moved to Oise, in Saint-Maximin for example, Some have been used as catacombs and form the municipal ossuary, part of which is open to the public. The excavated area represents more than 850 hectares, more than one tenth of the territory of Paris. The fragile basement is monitored and consolidated by the General Career Inspectorate founded in 1777.

• Map of the ancient quarries of Paris
• Overview of underground quarries in Paris

Water from the Parisian basement in the Albian sands table provided water to the city through the drilling of artesian wells.

Climate

Montsouris Park weather station.

A weather station, opened on 17 June 1872, is located in the 14th arrondissement, in the southern part of the Parc Montsouris (coordinates: 48,82167, 2,33778), at an altitude of 75 meters.

Paris has a degraded oceanic climate: the oceanic influence exceeds that of the mainland and translates (1981 - 2010) into an average minimum temperature of 15.1 °C from June to August and 3°C from December to February and 8.9 °C over the year, with frequent rain in all seasons (111111 days) and a changing weather but with less rain (637 millimeters) than on the coasts, and a few points of temperature (continental influence) in the heart of winter or summer. The development of urbanization causes an increase in temperature and a decrease in the number of days of fog.

During the 2003 European heat wave, the temperature was 39.4 °C on 6 August, 39.5°C on 11 August and 39.4 °C on 12 August. The warmest minimum temperature record took place on 11 and 12 August 2003 with 25.5 °C.

In 2012, the maximum observed was 38.4 °C on August 18 and 38.1 °C on August 19. On October 31, 2014, the maximum was 22 °C. On 1 November 2014, the November maximum was reduced by 0.4 °C with 21.4 °C. On November 7, 2015, the temperature peaked at 21.6 °C.

During the cold period, the day on which it froze most late was January 8, 1935 with -0.7 °C, then January 18, 2016 with -1.2°C. No freezing occurred for 340 consecutive days in 2015-2016 (it froze on February 12, 2015).

In 2016, on August 25, the temperature reached 36.5 °C and 2229.2 °C (33.7°C on August 12, 2003 at 22h).

On July 25, 2019, the absolute heat record of 42.6 °C measured from the Montsouris Park station was broken.

Every quarter, Météo-France and the Agence parisienne du climate publish a climate bulletin that details past seasons and compares them to those of the last 30 years.

On 10 September 1896, a violent tornado struck the heart of Paris, shortly before 3 p.m. It moves 6 km and kills five and injured a hundred.

Environment

Air pollution is a public health problem in Paris, which prompted the creation of the Airparif monitoring network in 1984 and, since 2001, policies to reduce the presence of cars, in particular the most polluting vehicles. The urban density of Paris, triple that of London, derives from higher buildings, the reduced number of townhouses and green spaces (2,300 hectares including woods) with a rather limited biodiversity. Apart from the creation of the Parc de la Villette in the 1980s, the reconquest of green spaces is recent.

If transport breaks down, Paris is hardly resilient, with barely a few days of food self-sufficiency, especially since the demise of a marshland belt around Paris in the ^twentieth century. The Île-de-France region is autonomous only at 10% for fresh vegetables, 1.5% for fruit, 12% for eggs and 1% for milk, with food autonomy only for wheat (159%) and sugar (117%).

Paris is an island of urban heat with an average surplus of more than 3 °C for night values. As a result, the heatwave in August 2003 resulted in an over-mortality in Île-de-France above the national average. Also recognized as an element of climate moderation, urban agriculture in 2016 has a very modest place compared to other metropolises like Detroit, Montreal, Berlin or Brussels, with only 44 agricultural facilities (1.6 hectares on rooftops and 1.3 hectares on the ground). The City set a target of 33 hectares in 2020 by mobilizing space on the rooftops of Paris.

Air quality

• 2019

The Office of the General Commissioner for Sustainable Development, attached to the Ministry of the Ecological Transition, has published a report showing an improvement in the quality of outdoor air in France. Emissions from human activity decreased between 2000 and 2018 for the majority of the pollutants studied: sulfur dioxide emissions from the industry have been halved due to the development of renewable energy and more stringent regulations, while nitrogen oxides emissions have decreased by 54%, mainly due to the renewal of the fleet.

However, ozone and five other pollutants have exceeded the regulatory standards for air quality"; and major cities like the capital are frequently hit by these pollution spikes.

• 2020

Containment to limit the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic helps to achieve the lowest level of pollution recorded by Airparif in 40 years in Paris. This reduction in pollution limits the risk of asphyxiation of people with acute respiratory distress syndrome. This episode also demonstrates that asthma attacks and spring seasonal allergies cause air and road pollution.

Transport

Tram line 3a.

Edicule Guimard at the metro station Palais-Royal - Louvre Museum.

Vélib' Metropole station at Place de la Nation.

The first mode of travel is walking, which ensures 40% of daily trips, whether internal to Paris or between Paris and its suburbs. On the surface, it represents 75% of the movements.

Then there is public transport, with the metro at the top, which provides 20% of the Parisian journey. Present since 1900 (the opening date of the first stretch of line 1), it has 16 lines in 2017, and is considered one of the symbols of the city, thanks in particular to its Art Nouveau architectural style. Public rail transport is complemented by the five lines of the RER, a suburban rail network that facilitates connections throughout the city; the six major railway stations (Paris-Austerlitz, Paris-Est, Paris-Gare-de-Lyon, Paris-Montparnasse, Paris-Nord, Paris-Saint-Lazare) that connect Paris to its outskirts via fifteen suburban railway lines (Transilien), as well as all cities in France and nearby countries via the TGV or conventional trains; and, more recently, by a quasi-circular tram (lines T3a and T3b). Finally, beside the railway public transport there is a dense network of about 100 bus lines, on a plan originally drawn mostly in 1947 and restructured since April 2019.

As for daily commuting, both in Paris and between Paris and the suburbs, the car, which has been in constant decline since the 1990s, is no longer a secondary vehicle - it now accounts for only 13% of commuting. Household automobile equipment in Paris was 36.8% in 2014. Road traffic is still dense and often difficult, and it generates very high pollution (90% of Parisians are exposed to pollution levels above health standards, and air quality is poor or very poor 40% of the year). However, the traffic benefits from a large series of infrastructure created successively. First, it was the wide avenues drawn by Haussmann in the ^nineteenth century, which greatly facilitated the traffic that was already significant at that time. The city was then surrounded by the ring road, which ended in 1973, which is the most widely used urban motorway in Europe with 270,000 vehicles a day. At the same time, a network of urban motorways was being built as a spider web linking Paris to the suburbs and the rest of the country. In 2010, however, a study placed the Parisian agglomeration, the European champion of road congestion, on 109 built-up areas studied. Drivers spend an average of 78 hours per year on road traffic, or 11 minutes per day. Parking in Paris is not free in most streets, but it is mostly (80%) underground. In 2014, 17,636 taxis circulate in Paris; they provide 0.5 per cent of travel. On October 2, 2011, the city council launched the short-term self-service car rental system "Autolib". This service, which was entrusted by a public service delegation to the Bolloré group, was used to rent a vehicle designed specifically for this purpose: the Bluecar, a fully electric car with four seats of 3.65 m long, equipped with a safe of 350 dm³ and a range of 150 to 250 km. The service was permanently closed on July 31, 2018.

After almost vanishing in the 1980's (when the number of cyclists in Paris was 85 times higher than in the 1980's), cycling has increased very rapidly since the 1990's - the number of cycling trips has increased 10-fold between 1991 and 2010. For Parisians, cycling now accounts for one-third of the traffic, and is 45% higher than motorized two-wheeled traffic. The continuation of these trends suggests that, in the 2020s, cycling traffic will be higher than motor traffic. Nevertheless, the share of bikes in travel was still estimated at only 3% in 2008, placing Paris at the bottom of the ranking of the most cycling European capitals. Since 1996, the city has been developing a network of cycling tracks, which in 2011 reached 700 km including bike lanes and bicycle paths as well as extended bus corridors. Following Rennes and Lyon, on 15 July 2007, the Paris City Council launched a self-service bike rental system called Vélib, with the most dense network in Europe, 20,000 bicycles at the end of 2007, 1,400 stations in Paris, one every 3 On average, 300 feet, and managed by JCDecaux and then by Smovengo since January 1, 2018.

Paris is Europe's second largest city in passenger air traffic in 2015, and the fifth largest city in the world in 2015. The two airports that host most of the traffic — Orly and especially Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle — transported 95.4 million passengers and 2.2 million tons of cargo in 2015.

The airports in France are managed by the ADP Group. To connect them to Paris, several means of road transport are available such as the OrlyBus and the RoissyBus, as well as railway shuttles such as the Orlyval, the T7 tram (connecting to the Rungis - La Fraternelle station with the trains of line C of the RER) and the RER line B.

Urban Morphology

Most French sovereigns since the Middle Ages have insisted on leaving their mark on a city that has never been destroyed, unlike in London (the Great Fire of 1666), Lisbon (the Earthquake of 1755) or Berlin (the fights of the Second World War). While retaining the imprint of the oldest past in the layout of some of the streets, Paris has developed a homogeneous style over the centuries and has managed to modernize its infrastructure.

Ile de la Cité and Ile Saint-Louis.

Until the Middle Ages, the city was composed of a dozen islands or sandbanks in the Seine; there are three remaining: Saint-Louis Island, Cité Island and Cygnes Island.

The current organization of the city owes much to the work of Haussmann, during the Second Empire. He broke through most of the most frequented roads today (Boulevard Saint-Germain, Boulevard de Sébastopol...). You often associate Paris with the alignment of buildings of equal height along avenues lined with trees, with facades punctuated by the ornaments of the second floor and the balcony spinning from the fifth floor. The center of Paris stands out from that of many other major western cities because of the density of its population.

Since the Edict of the Great Voyer of France of 1607 regulating the protruding of the road, there are strict rules of town planning in Paris, in particular limits of height and density of buildings. Today, the new buildings of more than 37 meters, the maximum allowed height between 1974 and 2010, are allowed up to 50 or 180 m in only a few outlying areas; the height limit is even lower in many central areas. The Montparnasse Tower (210 m) was from 1973 the tallest building in Paris and France, until it was 231 m from the First Tower in 2011, in the La Défense neighborhood, in Courbevoie. There are numerous skyscrapers in the suburbs, especially in the La Défense district and other towers, between 265 m and 323 m, which are in the works. The Trinity Tower has been under construction since 2016 and will open in 2019 while the other towers will be opened in 2020.

Panorama 360° from Paris, photographed from the Eiffel Tower.

 

The Seine, the Pont Royal and the Louvre Museum.

Parisian roads

Column Morris in front of the entrance to the Saint-Jacques metro station.

Parisian roads dedicate 60% of their space to pavements and 40% to sidewalks.

Paris had 6,088 public or private roads in 1997. The widest (120 meters) is Avenue Foch (16th), the narrowest (minimum width 1.80 m) is rue du Chat-qui-Pêche (5th). The longest (4,360 m) in Paris is Rue de Vaugirard (6th and 15th), the shortest (5,75 m) is Rue des Degrés (2nd). The shortest avenue (14 m) is Georges-Risler (16th). The steepest track (17%) is rue Gasnier-Guy (20th).

Urban furniture

There is typically Parisian urban furniture, immediately associated with the city, usually in bottle green color, which contributes to the image and soul of Paris:

• Wallace fountains;
• the entrances to certain metro stations with the Edicules Guimard;
• the Morris columns;
• Davioud newsstands (1857), with their small dome and characteristic frieze;
• bookshops;
• but also some models of music kiosks, street lights, public benches, etc.

• Examples of various types of urban furniture
• A Wallace fountain.

• Guimard entrance of the Porte Dauphine metro station.

• Bookshop stalls.

• Davioud Newspaper Kiosk.

• Music booth.

Paris and its surroundings

The urban unit of Paris seen by satellite, in false colors (blue in red, brown in green). The expansion of urbanization along the valleys and major lines of communication is clearly distinguished.

Between 1870 and 1940, the French capital gradually took on a new face: Paris gives way to "Grand Paris". Under Napoleon III, the administrative organization of Paris had adapted to demographic changes. But the city was then locked in the Thiers compound (its limit in 1860), without further administrative change. Paris, overcrowded, unable to accommodate the large provincial immigration, the outlying municipalities absorb the overflow of population expansion due to the rural exodus and the economic growth of the city: the contemporary concept of "suburbs" is emerging. Today, we talk less about Paris than about the Paris region. Until then, largely neglected, new problems, such as transport, have emerged. In 1961, at the request of General de Gaulle, Paul Delouvrier finally planned urban development and planned the construction of five new cities and the RER network. But this major change is not accompanied by the creation of a single authority, seeing instead that two of the three departments of the Paris region (the Seine and the Seine-et-Oise) constitute seven of them, which, although closer to the inhabitants, also disperse fiscal resources and political competences. While the population of the city of Paris declined significantly from 1954 to 1982 (- 23.6%), then more slowly at the end of the ^twentieth century before rising slightly in recent years, the suburbs grew steadily from the late ^nineteenth century, to totaling in the ^{twenty-first century} nearly 80% of the population of Greater Paris.

The social geography of the metropolitan area was modeled on the major trends of the city during the ^19th century: the upper classes are found in the west and southwest and the most popular in the north and east. The other sectors are populated by middle classes, with exceptions linked to the site and history of the communes, such as Saint-Maur-des-Fossés in the east and Enghien-les-Bains in the north, which host a wealthy population.

The large units were built during the 1960s and 1970s to provide rapid and low-cost housing for a rapidly expanding population. Originally, there was some social diversity, but home ownership (open to the middle class from the 1970s), poor construction quality, and poor integration into the urban fabric contributed to deserting them by those who could and attracting only a population with little choice: the proportion of poor immigrants is very high.

You will find "sensitive districts" in the arrondissements of the North and East of Paris, around the Goutte-d'Or and Belleville in particular. In the northern suburbs of Paris, these districts are mainly concentrated in a large part of the department of the Seine-Saint-Denis and to a lesser extent east of the Val-d'Oise. Others are more scattered, for example, in the Seine Valley, upstream in Evry and Corbeil-Essonnes (Essonne), downstream in the Mureaux and in Mantes-la-Jolie (Yvelines) or in some social groups of new cities.

Accommodation

In 2015, the total number of dwellings in Paris was 1,336,438, compared to 1,353,036 in 2009.

Among these dwellings, as of 2015, 83.6% were principal residences, 8.2% were secondary residences and 8.1% were vacant dwellings (down significantly from 1999: 10.3%). The majority of Parisian dwellings are shared (78.8% of the residences), with individual dwellings representing only 21.2% of the dwellings in 2016.

The proportion of the principal residences owned by their occupants was 33.1%, slightly higher than in 1999 (29.6%).

In 2009, 55.0% of the apartments in Paris had only one or two rooms.

Front-de-Seine seen from the Mirabeau bridge.

Social housing accounts for just over 17% of the urban housing stock, but this average rate conceals significant disparities in its spatial distribution: the first ten boroughs in the historic center account for only 6% of the city's social housing, accounting for 23% of the total park. The 13^th, 19^th and 20^th accounted for 96,000 in 1999, or 47% of the Parisian social park concentrated in just three boroughs. If you add the 12^th, 14^th, 15^th and 18th arrondissements, you reach a rate of 81% concentrated in a southern crescent north-east of the city. The proportion of social housing accounted for under the SRU Act in 2006 ranges from 1.2% in the 7^th arrondissement (357) to 34.1% in the 19^th arrondissement (28,147). Between 2001 and 2006, 23,851 dwellings were approved in the city, but 88,131 Parisians and 21,266 non-Parisians sought social housing in 2006. Tenant turnover is low due to high property prices. This rate is 10% per year in France, 7.5% in Île-de-France but only 5% in Paris. Many associations are working to find solutions to the poor housing and the precariousness of people without housing (Emmaus, Catholic Relief, French Red Cross..).

Paris is the French city where the phenomenon of poor housing is most present. This poor housing has two meanings: on the one hand, the legal status of a person who does not himself control the duration of his accommodation; on the other hand, the technical characteristics of the housing. According to the 23th report on the state of ill-housing, published by the Abbé-Pierre Foundation, poor housing is not lived in the same way in Paris as elsewhere. In general, people "bear" overcrowding so that they can stay in the capital, because they make a trade-off between location and comfort.

This map allows you to see that the unsanitary orders taken in 2010 concern buildings located in the old suburbs of Paris, east of the city of Paris.

Housing problems are high in Paris, with more than 10% of households in the capital facing them in 2016, a rate that has risen since 2015. Nevertheless, the long-term trend is decreasing, as in 2004, 14% of households were affected.

These difficulties are inherited from food safety issues dating back to the ^19th century, following a sudden and very important growth of the Parisian population since 1840. It is necessary to adapt the city to the exponential demand for housing, and public policies are being carried out in particular in Haussmann, in order to improve the hygiene of the city and reduce unsanitary conditions. This had the effect of pushing back the issue of unsafety in the old suburbs of Paris. This is still visible today: the 2010 unsanitary orders, which can be seen on the map against, are in the areas ruled out by Haussmann.

This photo illustrates the evolution that Island 1 has experienced, with the destruction and reconstruction work taking place between 1914 and 1939.

Several measures are being taken to reduce unworthy habitat. In particular, the establishment of a 'Casier Sanitaire des Houses de Paris', which identified 17 unsanitary islets in Paris in 1906. Paul Juillerat was involved in the development of this locker. The goal is to destroy these islets to rebuild a healthy habitat. The plan of these unsanitary islets was subsequently taken over, among others by Louis Sellier in 1937, and the islets are changing in shape. For example, the Pompidou Center was built in 1970 on the rubble of unsanitary buildings destroyed in the 1930s. Facing this museum, an example of unsanitary habitat destroyed and rebuilt between 1915 and 1945, 42 rue de Beaubourg illustrates this policy. This street belongs to Islet 1 as defined by the communication of Mr. Prefect of the Seine to the municipal council and the general council on the problem of housing in 1946.

Then, an economic-real-estate survey was conducted in the late 1950s to determine which areas to destroy in order to form large units. The unhealthy is then marked by a lack of air and light. One of the main causes of this unsafety is that landlords do not earn enough income from their buildings and no longer seek to maintain them, as a rent moratorium is put in place after the war to freeze rents for families of war-torn men who have been injured or who have died.

Since the 2000s, several companies have been assigned the task of solving the unsanitary situation that affects many Parisian dwellings. This is the case of the Siemp between 2002 and 2008, which has been entrusted with the management of 1,030 buildings whose work has now been completed, or the Sorêqa since 2010. Measures are in place to combat poor housing; this often involves temporary or permanent rehousing in order to rehabilitate or destroy and rebuild the affected building. In 2018, unworthy habitat in Paris declined; there are only scattered poles that suffer from management blockages or overcrowding.

Paris is the ninth most expensive city in the world in terms of luxury real estate prices: €12,600/m² in 2007 (London's 36,800, the most expensive). According to a survey conducted for the newspaper La Tribune, as of ^September 1^{, 2012}, the most expensive street in Paris is the Quai des Orfèvres (1^{st arr.), with a median price of 20,665 euros/m}2, compared to 3,900 euros/m2 rue Pres ajol (18^e). In 2017, Paris became the most attractive city in Europe for real estate investors, which had not happened since 2007. A 2019 study by the Institute for Planning and Urban Planning (IAU) found that housing prices are causing people who are modest to leave Paris and move to neighboring departments such as the Seine-Saint-Denis, which tends to cause the capital to become "gentrified" and the departments to become impoverished.

In 2019, Paris had 346,000 vacant dwellings, or 11.7 per cent of the dwellings in the capital. Associations are taking action to seek requisitions to house the homeless.

The number of people sleeping on the street in Paris increased by 23% between 2018 and 2019 according to a census. Most have given up calling 115, due to lack of space in the centers, fear of theft or aggression, or because dogs are not accepted. Samu Social warns about the lack of space for emergency accommodation; every day, 400 families who make up the 115 in the hope of finding a roof over the night remain unanswered.

Urban sociology

Wealthy households live mainly in the west and south of the city, while the northeast is home to the poorest and most immigrant populations.

The continued rise in home prices is why the modest and middle populations are being gradually replaced by a new, more affluent class. This gentrification process can be seen in many other megacities such as London and New York. In Paris, this evolution vulgarized the term bobos (for bourgeois-boheme, a vague but very popular term, except by sociologists who rarely refer to it) before provoking a social mutation of districts still recently considered popular, such as the 10^th arrondissement or some nearby suburbs like Montreuil in the Seine-Saint-Denis. For example, the share of executives and the intellectual professions increased from 24.7% of the labor force in 1982 to 46.4% in 2013.

Paris is the 12th city of more than 20,000 inhabitants for the proportion of people subject to the Solidarity Capital Tax (ISF), or 34.5 tax households per 1,000 inhabitants. 73,362 tax households reported average assets of 1,961,667 euros in 2006. The 16th arrondissement leads the number of taxpayers with 17,356 taxpayers. With €27,400 in average income per unit of consumption in 2001, Parisian households are the wealthiest in France. The other four departments that top the list are all from France: Hauts-de-Seine, Yvelines, Essonne and Val-de-Marne, reflecting the concentration of highly skilled high-income professions in the Île-de-France region.

But, while Paris has an image of a "city of the rich" with a higher proportion of social classes than elsewhere, its intra-muros sociology is in fact very diverse. According to the purchasing power parity index (PPP), the real incomes of Parisians are much lower than their nominal incomes: the cost of living within the muros (starting with the cost of housing) is particularly high, and some types of food are more expensive in Paris than in the rest of France. Moreover, unlike median income, average income conceals disparities, with very high incomes dwarfing much lower incomes. In the case of Paris, the threshold of the highest 10% of income (9^th decile) is 50,961 euros per year, which partly explains the capital's high average income and the large gap between average and median income.

The social differences are traditionally marked between the inhabitants of the West of Paris (mostly wealthy) and those of the East. For example, the average income reported in the 7^th arrondissement, the highest, was 31,521 euros per unit of consumption in 2001, more than double that of the 19^th arrondissement, which was 13,759 euros, close to the median of the revenue of the Seine-Saint-Saint Denis of 13,155 euros. The 6^th, 7th, 8^{th and} 16th arrondissements are classified as the ten most middle-income districts in France, while the 10^th, 18th, 19th and 20th arrondissements are classified as the poorest municipalities in Île-de-France.

Finally, there are very large disparities in income within all arrondissements: the lowest interdecimal ratio (the 10%-of-income threshold divided by the 10%-of-income threshold) is 6.7 in the 12^th arrondissement, compared to 13.0 in the 2^th arrondissement (which has the highest income dispersion). More generally, Paris ranks among the metropolitan departments with the lowest low-income thresholds (81^th place), and presents an interdecimal report of 10.5 which makes it the French department where the greatest social disparities are concentrated.

Map of the evolution of workers and managers by IRIS in Paris in 2006 and 2013.

There are also forms of social segregation in certain districts of the north-east of Paris, such as Barbès-Rochechouart. Indeed, the sociology of some of the districts in the east of Paris (like the 19^th) resembles that of a few sensitive suburbs that are only the extra-muros extension of the city's social map: the 16^th arrondissement extends into affluent suburbs, while the northeast of the city has as its appendix the municipalities of the Seine-Saint-Denis, reputed to be poor. In the early 2000s, the poorest population was concentrated in the northeastern boroughs: 40% of the households concerned reside in the 18^th, 19th and 20^{th arrondissements, compared with 2% in the} 4th and 6^th boroughs. 32.6% of Parisian families of foreign origin outside the European Union live below the poverty line; this is only the case for 9.7% of French people whose reference person is French. Today, there is an increasing influx of executives, at the expense of the working class that has historically settled in these neighborhoods. This leads to a gentrification phenomenon that leads to an increase in the price of land and changes in the urban landscape. In the Goutte-d'Or district, the Barbès brasserie, characterized by its expensive menu and classy architecture, is representative of the gentrification of the north-eastern districts of Paris.

Some neighborhoods are characterized by community groupings: the Marais district has the particularity of attracting a large homosexual community to the vicinity of the Ashkenazi Jewish community, whose location around Rue des Rosiers dates back to the ^13th century. The 13^th arrondissement is home to a large Asian community in the Olympiads district.

The sociology of a neighborhood can vary according to the hours. The one on Place de la Bastille, for example, with its numerous bars and nightlife venues, is lively in the evening by many young people, while during the day it enjoys relative tranquility.

In 2018, the most favored socio-professional categories accounted for 86 per cent of housing transactions, compared with 69 per cent in 1998. Conversely, the share of employees and workers purchasing housing has been steadily declining in 20 years. The proportion was divided by three, from 15% to 5%.

The name of the city was first attested by Julius Caesar in the middle of the 1st century BC. BC, in The War of the Gauls, in the form Lutecia or Lutetia (according to manuscripts). Then there is Lutetia apud Parisios in the ^4th century (Parisios being plural adversarial); then Parisios [usque] in 400 - 410, and finally Paris, certified as early as 887.

The word Paris comes from the name of the Gallic people of Paris (with a plural rental datif: Parisians), of which Paris was the capital in Gallo-Roman times. The first designation Lutetia (Lutetia) was replaced in the ^4th century, following a general process observed in the Gaul of the Lower Empire for the capitals of civitas (Gallo-Roman cities): they were first called by their original name, followed by the name of the people of which they were the capital, as Lutecia des Parisii in this case. Then the name of the people to the rental dative remained alone, the name then signifying in the Parisii (see among others Angers capital of the Andecaves, Tours of Turones, Evreux of the Eburovices, Saintes of the Santons, Poitiers of the Pictons, Amiens of the Ambians, etc., all in the same case).

According to Pierre-Henry Billy, Lutetia could be from the Gauls *luta, mud, with the suffix -etia, which corresponds very well to the nature of the land described by Caesar in the War of the Gauls (existence of a permanent marsh that poured its waters into the Seine). As for the etymology of the Parisii ethno, it is not known for certain. It could come from the Gauls *pario, cauldron (cf. the same-meaning provencal pairol), meaning "Those of the cauldron", with a mythical and sacred reference (Celtic theme of the cauldron of abundance representing survival in the Beyond and riches of the Other World).

The Parisii gave their name to Paris, as well as to the country of Parisis (now "country of France"), which remains in Villeparisis, Corcheles-en-Parisis, Fontenay-en-Parisis. There were also Gauls from the same tribe of the Parisi in England, in the present East Yorkshire.

Prehistory and Antiquity

Caldarium of the Baths of Cluny.

Permanent habitat is certified within the boundaries of the present Paris from the hunting period (between 4,000 and 3,800 BC) to the village of Bercy; the remains of three Neolithic canoes that are now visible at the Musée Carnavalet were found on the left bank of an ancient arm of the Seine in the 12th arrondissement, where human presence seems to have been continuous during the Neolithic period.

In general, however, the history of the Parisian site is not well known until the Gallo-Roman period. The only certainty is that the Parisi, one of the 98 Gallic peoples, lived in this region in 52 BC, when they were subjected to Rome. Thus, the location of the Gallic city mentioned in the Latin sources is not known: it could be the Île de la Cité (no archeological remains before Auguste were found), the Île Saint-Louis, another island today attached to the left bank, or even the site of Nanterre, where an important orderly agglomeration was discovered in 2003. In all cases, the Roman city extends on the left bank and on the Île de la Cité; it takes the name of Lutetia (Lutetia).

In the Gallo-Roman era, Lutetia was only a relatively modest city in the Roman world with a population of around ten thousand at its peak; in comparison, Lugdunum (Lyon), the capital of the three Gauls (including the Lyonnaise, which includes the Lutetia region), was estimated to have had between 50,000 and 80,000 inhabitants in the ^2nd century. However, there is some prosperity in the area thanks to the river traffic. According to tradition, the city was christianized by Saint Denis, who was martyred around 250.

Lutèce's strategic position in the face of the great invasions makes it a place of residence for the emperor Julien between 357 and 360, then Valentinian I in 365-366. The city took the name of Paris at that time. Although its suburbs still remain in the ^4th century, the population folds back in the ^5th century on the Île de la Cité, fortified by the recovery of stones taken from the large ruined buildings. In 451, Saint Geneviève, the future patron saint of the city, would have convinced the inhabitants not to flee before the Huns d'Attila, who effectively turn away from them without fighting.

Middle Ages

In 508, after conquering most of Gaul, Clovis made Paris its capital. He established his main residence there (the Palace of the Baths), and had several religious buildings built there, including the Basilica of the Saints Apostles, where he was buried; however, the role of the city must be relativized, as there is no royal administration at that time. Throughout the ^6th and ^7th centuries, Paris remained particularly important, even though the divisions of the kingdom of Clovis between its heirs limited its reach. Childebert I built Gaul's largest cathedral (St. Stephen's Cathedral), while Childeric II renovated the Gallo-Roman arenas. During this period, revitalized by the monastic foundations and its function as capital, the city probably began to extend on the right bank, while the left bank was reoccupied.

Representation of the Palais de la Cité in the Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry.

The extension to the east of the kingdom of the Franks under the reign of Charlemagne made Paris lose its privileged political position. From the middle of the ^9th century, it was part of the territory of the Robertians, who took the title of Count of Paris. Particularly exposed because of its location on the Seine, it was at the same time ruined economically by the raids of the Vikings, which ravaged it several times, forcing the population to retreat to the Île de la Cité. In 885-886, besieged by the Normans, the city managed to resist them successfully, while blocking them from the access to the river. This episode brings great prestige to Paris and his Count Eudes, who helped in his defense; It marks a stage in the decline of the Carolingian empire, however, as the behavior of Charles the Gros was deemed unworthy during the events.

Compendium of Orders of the Marshal of the Merchants of Paris, containing the transcript of the order made in February 1416 by Charles VI.

During the reign of the early Capetians, Paris was one of the main cities of the royal estate, but not a capital, being only one residence for them. However, over time, it has become more important: Robert le Pieux thus restored the Palais de la Cité and several abbeys, while Louis VI and Louis VII set their courtyard and chancellery there. At the same time, the city prospered, becoming an important place in the trade of wheat, fish and sheet, with Parisian merchants joining together in a "hanse of water merchants" favored by Louis VII in 1170-1171. It also became a major educational center, thanks to the Episcopal schools at first, and then from the mid-^12th century, to the religious communities that settled on the then depopulated left bank. Like the whole of the Christian West, its population grew at that time considerably: Paris first stretches on the right bank (early ^11th century), which becomes its economic lung, with the Île de la Cité housing the major administrative and religious buildings.

It was Philippe Auguste who made Paris the undisputed capital of the kingdom, on which he was the first Capetian to exercise strong control; this position is further strengthened under the reigns of Louis IX and Philippe le Bel. The royal administration, which was considerably developed, held its headquarters in the city, where the House of Accounts, the Treasury, and the Archives of the Kingdom were located. The Parisian bourgeois play a major role in the management of the state, often being part of the sovereign’s close entourage. The monarchs nevertheless ensure that the autonomy of the city is limited, which does not obtain the status of a municipality; the corporations were granted various political privileges, which resulted in the creation of a municipality in 1263, composed of a merchant’s proxy and four rivals. At the same time, the schools on the left bank are uniting into a "university", recognized by the pope in 1209-1210, making Paris the most prestigious center of teaching in Western Europe for at least a century. The city also becomes the symbol of the royal power, which seeks to give it buildings worthy of its rank: Notre-Dame Cathedral was completed around 1250, Sainte-Chapelle was the home of the crown of Christ in 1248, the Palais de la Cité was renovated and extended, and the Parisian market was covered and walled (Halles). Philippe Auguste also surrounds the two banks of the city of stone walls, completed in 1209-1212. Paris continues to grow, with the left bank being repopulated in the ^13th century; at the beginning of the ^14th century, its population was estimated to be around 200,000, making it the most populous city in Europe.

In 1348, the city was struck for the first time by the plague, which ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1351; this disease then reaches it cyclically for several centuries. During the Hundred Years' War, it was exposed to the English attacks, which led Charles V to build a new rampart on the right bank covering the suburbs. At the same time, in a context of economic depression and military defeat, the royal authority is challenged: the merchant's Provost Etienne Marcel attempted to seize power in 1357-1358, while popular riots multiplied, such as that of the Maillotins in 1382. In response, Charles V and Charles VI elect a residence in eastern Paris, less exposed to disturbance. At the beginning of the ^15th century, the conflict between Armagnacs and Burgundy also led to numerous violence in the capital; the latter took over in 1418, and Paris fell to the king of England two years later. The city was reconquered in 1436 by Charles VII , but he preferred to reside near the Loire, and the same was true of his successors Louis XI , Charles VIII and Louis XII. After the war, Paris shrank behind its walls, and its population fell to about 100,000.

From Renaissance to Eighteenth Century

The Hotel de Sens, built between 1475 and 1519, is one of the oldest mansions in Paris.

Topographa Galliae, Oder Beschreibung vnd Contrafaitung der vornehmbsten, vnd bekantisten Oerter, in dem mächtigen, vnd magnien Königreich Franckreich / Zeiller, Martin.

The Renaissance, marked by the king and his courtyard residing in the Loire Valley, does not benefit much in Paris. Despite its remoteness, the monarchy is worried about the disorderly expansion of the city. An initial planning regulation was enacted in 1500 concerning the new Notre-Dame bridge, bordered by uniform brick and stone houses in the Louis XII style.

In 1528, François I officially established his residence in Paris. The intellectual influence is increasing: In addition to the teaching of the university (theology and liberal arts) there is a modern teaching oriented towards humanism and exact sciences, which the king wanted at the Collège de France. Under his reign, Paris reached 280,000 inhabitants and remains the largest city in the Christian world.

The Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy by François Dubois was launched in Paris before being extended to more than twenty provincial towns.

On August 24, 1572, under Charles IX, the massacre of St. Bartholomew was organized. There are between two thousand and ten thousand victims. The Catholic League, particularly powerful in the capital, stood against Henry III during the Day of the Barricades in 1588. He fled before besieging the city. After his assassination, the siege was maintained by Henri de Navarre, who became Henri IV. The city, however ruined and hungry, did not open its doors until 1594 after its conversion.

The Day of the Barricades (1648) marks the beginning of the Fronde, which is causing a major economic crisis and a new distrust of the king towards his capital.

Despite higher mortality than births, the population reaches 400,000 through provincial immigration. Paris is a miserable city with a high level of insecurity, the legendary court of miracles was gradually emptied from 1656 by Lieutenant-General of Police Gabriel Nicolas de La Reynie who established 6,500 lanterns to light the city at night and make the streets safer.

Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1677, before moving the seat of government there in 1682. Colbert takes control of the Parisian management and makes the shuttle between Paris and Versailles. During his reign, the Sun King came to Paris only twenty-four times, mainly for official ceremonies, thus marking the city a hostility that Parisians do not like.

In the ^18th century, Versailles did not deprive Paris of its intellectual influence; On the contrary, it makes it a powerful slinger open to the ideas of the Enlightenment. This is the period of literary exhibitions, like that of Mrs. Geoffrin. The ^18th century was also one of a strong economic expansion that allowed a large population growth, the city reached 640,000 inhabitants on the eve of the French Revolution.

In 1715, regent Philippe d'Orléans left Versailles for the Palais-Royal. The young Louis XV is set up at the Palais des Tuileries for an ephemeral return from royalty in Paris. From 1722, Louis XV returned to the Château de Versailles breaking the fragile reconciliation with the Parisian people.

The city then stretches about over the first six boroughs of the day, with the Jardin du Luxembourg marking the city's western border. Louis XV took a personal interest in the city in 1749 when he decided to develop Place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde), the creation of the military school in 1752, and especially the construction of a church dedicated to Sainte-Geneviève in 1754, better known as Panthéon.

The French Revolution and the Empire

Watercolor by Jean-Pierre Houël representing the Taking of the Bastille on July 14, 1789.

The French Revolution began in Versailles with the convening of the States General and then the Oath of the Palm Game. But the Parisians, who were hit by the economic crisis (bread prices), sensitized to political problems by the philosophy of the Enlightenment and motivated by resentment towards the royal power that has abandoned the city for more than a century, are giving it a new direction. The capture of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, linked to the uprising of the cabinetmakers of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, is a first step. On 15 July, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly received the office of first mayor of Paris at the city hall. On October 5, the riot, triggered by women on the Paris markets, reached Versailles in the evening. On the morning of the 6th, the castle was invaded and the king had to agree to come to live in Paris at the Tuileries Palace and to call the Constituent Assembly, which took place on October 19th in the Tuileries Manege.

The "Paris department" then consists of three districts: Paris, Le Franciade and Bourg-de-l'Equality.

On July 14, 1790, the feast of the Federation took place on the Champ-de-Mars, a place that would be July 17, 1791 the scene of a dramatic shooting. Occupied from May 1790 after the sale of the national property, the Cordeliers convent and the Jacobins convent, the main sites of revolutionary Paris, mark the all-power of the Parisian clubs during the Revolution.

On the night of 9 August 1792, a revolutionary town took over the town hall. On August 10, crowds besieged the Tuileries Palace with the support of the new municipal government. King Louis XVI and the royal family are incarcerated at the Temple Tower. The French monarchy is effectively abolished. After the 1792 elections, the very radical representatives of the Commune of Paris opposed the National Convention to the Girondins group (representing the more moderate opinion of the bourgeoisie of the provinces), which was discarded in 1793.

The capture of the Tuileries on August 10, 1792 by Jean Duplessis-Bertal, Musée du château de Versailles.

Parisians then live two years of rationing. Terror reigns under the control of the Public Salvation Committee. The Revolutionary Tribunal, with the help of the City Hall, is trying to incarcerate all that the city still has noble suspects, refractory priests and opponents who are judged counter-revolutionaries. Napoleon's creation of the Office of the Police Commissioner will remove from the municipality all judicial police powers, so that the mayor of Paris is still the only one in France to be deprived of them. On January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined on Louis XV square, renamed "Place de la Revolution". He was followed on the scaffold by 1,119 people, including Marie-Antoinette, Danton, Lavoisier and finally Robespierre and his supporters after the 9 Thermidor an II (July 27, 1794).

The Revolution is not a favorable period for the development of the city (few monuments are built) which has only 548,000 inhabitants in 1800. Many convents and churches have been razed to the ground, giving way to housing developments without an overall plan, leading to a reduction in the city's green spaces and a densification of the center. Under the Directoire, the neo-classical-style reporting buildings are high.

In 1806, Paris compensated for the losses suffered during the Revolution and had a population of 650,000; this increase is mainly due to provincial immigration, the birth rate remains low. Since the middle of the ^eighteenth century, the city has been distanced by London, which is expanding economically and demographically to 1,096,784 inhabitants. On December 2, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte, who took power in 1799, was sacred emperor by Pope Pius VII at Notre-Dame Cathedral. He decided to establish the capital of his Empire in Paris and wanted to make it the "new Rome". For this purpose, he ordered the construction of the arches of triumph of the Star and the Carrousel, as well as the construction of the Imperial Palace of the Stock Exchange (completed under the Restoration) and the Vendôme column. He also submitted to Jean-Antoine Alavoine the project of the elephant of the Bastille, and to the architects Percier and Fontaine the construction of the palace of the King of Rome, of which only the gardens of the Trocadéro and the bridge of Iéna will be finally completed. The Emperor also multiplies the water points, fed by a network of 30 miles of canals that carry water from the Urcq.

In 1814, the Battle of Paris led to the capitulation of the capital and the first abdication of Napoleon and the Restoration. The Cossacks of the Russian army occupy certain parts of the city, which will give rise to a legend about the origin of the word bistro, as proclaimed by the Syndicate d'Initiative du Vieux Montmartre, at the restaurant À la Mère Catherine, place du Tertre. The Allied armies left the city after 3 June 1814, the date of the departure of Tsar Alexander I.

From the Restaurants to the Commune of Paris

At the end of the Hundred Days, the fall of the Empire in July 1815 brought the English and Prussian armies to Paris, which even went as far as camping on the Champs-Élysées. Louis XVIII, returning from his exile in Ghent, moved again to the Tuileries.

Louis XVIII and Charles X, then the monarchy of July, have little concern for Parisian urbanism. The labor proletariat, which is rapidly expanding, is crumbling miserably in the central districts, which, with more than 100,000 inhabitants per square kilometer, constitute major outbreaks; cholera in 1832 killed 32,000 people. In 1848, 80% of the dead went to the mass grave and two-thirds of the Parisians were too poor to pay taxes. The impoverished mass of the little people, abandoned and exhausted, is ripe for repeated revolts that the government does not feel like sprouting or is sure to defeat: the barricades brought down Charles X at the Three Glorious and Louis-Philippe in 1848. The society of the time is abundantly described by Balzac, Victor Hugo or Eugène Sue.

During this period, the city accelerated its growth rate to reach the Wall of the General Farmers. Between 1840 and 1844, the last enclosure of Paris, known as the Thiers enclosure, was built on the current location of the ring road. In the heart of the city, Rambuteau street is broken.

Camille Pissarro, Boulevard Montmartre, 1897, Hermitage Museum.

With the advent of the Second Empire, Paris was transforming radically. With a medieval structure, old and unsanitary constructions, almost devoid of major roads, it becomes in less than twenty years a modern city. Napoleon III has specific ideas about urban planning and housing: the Paris of today is therefore above all that of Haussmann. Thousands of homes are disappearing, amid real-estate speculation that will cause an international financial crash.

On 1 January 1860, a law allowed Paris to annex several neighboring communes. The French capital thus increases from twelve to twenty arrondissements and from 3,288 to 7,802 hectares. After these annexations, the city's administrative boundaries will be changed only slightly, and urban growth, which continues from the late ^nineteenth to the ^twentieth century, will no longer be accompanied by an expansion of the communal borders, which is the origin of the "suburbs".

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Paris was besieged for several months but was not taken by the Prussian armies. On this occasion, the aerial post was invented, thanks to the balloons mounted. Refusing the armistice signed on 28 January 1871 and following the February elections which brought to power the royalists wishing to end the war, the Parisians rebelled on 18 March 1871. This is the beginning of the Commune of Paris. The monarchist assembly temporarily installed in Versailles represses it between May 22 and May 28 during the Bloody Week that remains to this day the last civil war in Paris. After the war of 1870, to recover, the city of Paris raised a large public loan of CHF 1.2 million which was very successful; it is subscribed more than fifteen times.

From the Belle Epoque to the Second World War

The Eiffel Tower during the Universal Exhibition of 1889.

Quarter of Obligation of the City of Paris as of July 27, 1911.

During the Belle Epoque, the economic expansion of Paris was important; in 1913 the city had one hundred thousand companies that employed one million workers. Between 1900 and 1913, 175 cinemas were created in Paris, numerous department stores were created and contributed to the light city. A place of all speculation, Paris also becomes the second most international financial center almost on par with London.

Two universal exhibitions leave a large footprint in the city. The Eiffel Tower was built for the Exhibition of 1889 (centenary of the French Revolution), which welcomed twenty-eight million visitors. The metropolitan's first line, the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais and the Alexandre-III bridge were inaugurated on the occasion of the 1900 one, which received fifty-three million visitors. The industry is gradually moving in the suburbs where the necessary space is found: Renault in Boulogne-Billancourt or Citroën in Suresnes. This migration is at the origin of the "red suburb". However, some activities remain strongly established in the city, especially the press and printing press.

From the Belle Epoque to the Roaring Twenties, Paris is experiencing the pinnacle of its cultural influence (especially around the Montparnasse and Montmartre districts) and hosts a large number of artists such as Picasso, Matisse, Braque and Fernand Léger.

In 1910, a 100 year flood on the Seine caused one of the most severe flooding in the city and caused three billion francs of damage. During the First World War, Paris, spared from the fighting, suffered German bombings and gunfire. These bombings remain sporadic and constitute only psychological operations. In 1917, the creation of a Paris replica was planned to deceive German airmen who came to bomb the capital.

The interwar period is taking place against the backdrop of a social and economic crisis. The government, in response to the housing crisis, is passing the Loucheur law which creates cheap housing (HBM) built on the site of the former Thiers compound. The other buildings in Paris are, for the most part, dilapidated and constitute TB outbreaks; urban density peaked in 1921, with an intimate city of 2,906,000 inhabitants. At the same time, housing estates are being developed all around the city, in the "suburbs" where the expansion takes place in an anarchic way, often in the fields without real public facilities or equipment.

Parisians are trying to regain political prominence in the face of multiple financial scandals and corruption in the political environment. On February 6, 1934, the Patriotic League protest against the parliamentary left turned into a riot, killing seventeen and injuring one thousand five hundred, and then on July 14, 1935, a major pro-Popular Front rally counted five hundred thousand demonstrators.

Parade of tanks in Paris in 1941. The tanks are French Somua S-35 and Hotchkiss H35 captured by the Germans.

During the Second World War, Paris, declared an open city in the debacle, was occupied by the Wehrmacht on June 14, 1940. She is relatively spared. The government of Marshal Pétain in Vichy, Paris ceases to be the capital and becomes the seat of the German military command in France (Militärbefehlshaber in Frankreich). On 23 December 1940, engineer Jacques Bonsergent was the first rider shot in Paris. On 16 and 17 July 1942, the Vel' d'Hiv was raided, the arrest of 12,884 Jews, the largest in France, mostly women and children.

As Allied troops approached, the Internal Resistance triggered an armed uprising on 19 August 1944. The Liberation of Paris took place on 25 August with the entry into Paris of the 2nd Armored Division of General Leclerc and the 4th American Infantry Division of Major-General Raymond O. Barton. The day before, Leclerc had ordered Captain Raymond Dronne to break through the enemy lines with his ninth company, La Nueve, (Chad's walking regiment), which arrived at the town hall at 21 h 22 on the evening of the 24th. General von Choltitz surrendered without following Hitler's orders to destroy the city's main monuments. The city is relatively spared from the fighting. Paris is one of the rare communes in France to be awarded the title of companion of the Liberation.

Contemporary Paris

View of the north-west of Paris from the third floor of the Eiffel Tower.

North view of Paris from the Tuileries Gardens.

In 1956, Paris joined Rome with a privileged twinning, a strong symbol in a geographically broader dynamic of reconciliation and cooperation after the Second World War.

During General de Gaulle's tenure from 1958 to 1969, several political events took place in the capital. On 17 October 1961, a protest in favor of Algeria's independence was violently repressed. It is estimated that between 32 and 325 people are killed by police, then led by Maurice Papon. From March 22, 1968, a major student movement began at Nanterre University. He leads protests in the latin quarter that escalate into riots. The protests, taking shape in a context of international solidarity and emulation (black and feminist Americans, Dutch "provos", Prague Spring, attack on the German Rudi Dutschke, etc.) between idealist and young brimstone, rocked by Bob Dylan and his hit hit The Times They Are a-Changin, wanting to "change the world", quickly developed into a political crisis and national social. On May 13, huge parades gather 800,000 people to protest police violence. On May 30, a protest in support of the government and General de Gaulle gathered one million people, from Place de l'Etoile to Place de la Concorde. After two months of turmoil and disorder, Parisians voted overwhelmingly in favor of General de Gaulle in the general elections on June 22 and 29, and the situation is calm.

General de Gaulle's successor, Georges Pompidou, is closely interested in the capital. It leaves its name to the building that houses the National Museum of Modern Art and the public library of information and to the highway on the right bank. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, the president in turn, does not share his vision of radical modernization: it calls into question the planned Halles project and partially interrupts the left bank expressway project. In 1976, the State granted for the first time since 1871 an autonomous municipality to the capital. The Gaullist Jacques Chirac was elected mayor, then re-elected in 1983 and 1989. Under President François Mitterrand's first term, a reform was adopted by the Decentralization Act of 31 December 1982: it provides each arrondissement of the capital with a mayor and a city council of its own, not designated by the mayor of Paris.

In 1991, the banks of the Seine, from the Sully bridge (upstream) to the bridge of Iéna (downstream), are classified on the UNESCO World Heritage list as a remarkable river-urban complex with its monuments, many of which are architectural masterpieces with a global influence.

The Republican protest on January 11, 2015 in Paris, Place de la République.

Elected President of the Republic in May 1995, Jacques Chirac was replaced by Jean Tiberi, whose only term of office was marked, inter alia, by the discovery of several political-financial affairs and by the division of the municipal majority. In 2001, Paris elected a left-wing mayor, the socialist Bertrand Delanoë, and then re-elected in 2008. It stands out from its predecessors by its stated desire to reduce the place of the automobile in the city to the benefit of pedestrians and public transport. It develops the liveliness of Parisian life through major cultural events such as Nuit Blanche or simply fun like Paris Plages. In the 2014 municipal elections, Anne Hidalgo, first deputy of Bertrand Delanoë, became the first woman mayor of Paris.

Since 2015, France has experienced a wave of unprecedented Islamist terrorist attacks. The city of Paris was also hit in January 2015 with the Charlie Hebdo killing and the hostage-taking of Hyper Casher, which claimed 17 victims. Following these tragic events, a historic Republican protest is being held on January 11, 2015, bringing together more than three million people and nearly 50 heads of state, to defend freedom of expression and pay tribute to the victims of terrorism. Ten months later, on November 13, 2015, unprecedented attacks hit the capital and its suburbs in the form of suicide bombers near the Stade de France, mass killings in coffee terraces in the 10th and 11th arrondissements, and at the Bataclan concert hall, attacks organized by a commando a dozen or so Islamic State-claimed men killed 130 people and injured hundreds. On April 20, 2017, the capital is once again the target of a terrorist attack, a terrorist opens fire on the Champs-Elysées during the life of a policeman, Daesh claims the attack a few hours later, and on May 12, 2018, the capital is still the target of a terrorist attack, a terrorist stabbing of terrorists 2tharrondissement, Daesh claimed responsibility for the attack a few hours later.

On 15 April 2019, the city was hit by a fire at Notre-Dame Cathedral, which caused the collapse of its arrow.

Status and Administrative Organization

Map of the arrondissements of Paris.

Since 1 January 2019 Paris has been a community with a special status that exercises the powers of a municipality and a department. It is divided into arrondissements, like the cities of Lyon and Marseille, with twenty (the first four forming a single sector). It is also the central community of the Greater Paris metropolis, created in 2016.

The State has special prerogatives exercised by the Paris police prefect. The administrative police powers are shared between the mayor of Paris and the police prefect, who reciprocally lend themselves to their means of action to this end. The latter may sit on the Paris Council and must submit his budget and account to it each year (although this budget remains decided by the State). The mayor is involved in security policy even though the powers in this area remain in the hands of the police prefect.

History

Paris City Hall at night.

The status of the city of Paris has changed several times.

During its territorial extension in 1860, the City of Paris was divided into twenty municipal districts, replacing the twelve boroughs that had existed before October 11, 1795, and eighteen electoral districts.

From 26 March to 22 May 1871, Paris was the seat of an insurrectional power, the Commune of Paris, with a democratically elected assembly. The Third Republic was initially led by conservatives who were frightened by the episode. They enacted the law of April 5, 1884 which gave executive power to the prefect of the Seine and police powers to the prefect of the police. The Paris Council, elected in municipal elections, appointed a president each year whose office was mainly representative. Paris had no mayor then. The city's budget was to be approved by the state.

The reorganization of the Parisian region, which took effect on January 1, 1968, makes Paris both a municipality and a department: the Paris City Council and the Seine General Council are replaced by the Paris Council, which exercises both the powers of a city council and those of a general council. It was established on 1 January 1968. But it was not until the law of December 31, 1975 (which came into force in the 1977 municipal elections) that Paris regained a status similar to that of other communities, with the restoration of the post of mayor of Paris, elected by the Paris Council and holder of executive power. District commissions, whose members are chosen on a par basis between the voters, the mayor of Paris and the Paris Council, have an advisory and lively role. The prefect of police, appointed by the state, retains police powers. Finally, the PML Act of 31 December 1982, which entered into force in Paris during the 1983 municipal elections, brings the number of Paris councilors to 163, expands the powers of the Paris Council (mainly in budgetary matters) and creates the boroughs councils.

From 1987, at the administrative level, the merging of the services of the municipality and the department deeply intertwined the two institutions of the municipality and the department. In 2015, the Regional Chamber of Accounts, supported by the Mayor of Paris, recommended merging the Paris department and the Paris municipality into a single community. In January 2016, the mayor of Paris proposed a vow to the city council, taking up this proposal, but also the merger of the first four boroughs by 2020. The population of this new district would be just over 100,000. A bill introduced in August 2016 and the law was enacted in February 2017. On 1 January 2019, the department and the municipality merge into a community of special status, the "City of Paris", exercising both the powers of the department and the municipality.

On 11 July 2020, following the municipal elections in March and June 2020, the first four boroughs merged into a single sector called Paris Center.

Intercommunality

The metropolis of Grand Paris (MGP) is the only intercommunality of Île-de-France. It includes Paris, the communes of the small crown and seven communes of the great crown.

Unlike other French metropolises, there has long been no intercommunality with its own taxation between Paris and its suburbs. Paris was only a member of some intercommunal unions, such as the Syndicat interdépartemental pour l'agglomération Parisienne (SIAAP) or the Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France (STIF), after having long outsourced its equipment, such as cemeteries or incineration plants, outside Paris. The Parisian territory covers only the center of the metropolis, unlike other major international metropolises. This structural lack is considered to be one of the major problems of the Parisian agglomeration, then the organization of the collective needs (transport, housing, etc.) which go far beyond the communal area. The Ile-de-France region cannot organize the metropolis, while 80% of the regional space remains rural.

Local taxation is also very concentrated in some municipalities rich in businesses and/or affluent populations. Neuilly-sur-Seine, which benefits from the tax revenues of one of France's wealthiest people and many La Défense businesses, has only 2.8% of social housing, while the burden of inflating low-income populations on a territory is borne by municipalities which do not always have the possibility of finding within their administrative limits the resources necessary to compensate them. By contrast, Clichy-sous-Bois is thus one of the poorest cities in the country, which has a young and disadvantaged population with very limited own tax resources, living essentially on state endowments which do not allow services comparable to those of the wealthy communes.

These difficulties, evident after the 2005 riots in the French suburbs, were at the origin of the Metropolitan Conference of the Paris agglomeration, which met at the initiative of the city of Paris for the first time in Vanves Town Hall on 7 July 2006, after the Deputy Pierre Mansat revived the Paris dialog with the riverside municipalities. French President Nicolas Sarkozy addresses this issue in his speech of 26 June 2007, criticizing the proposed management plan for the Île-de-France region (SDRIF), saying that he is rethinking "the organization of powers" and creating an urban community, effectively imposing the vision of a state takeover. The project is hurting many local elected officials in the metropolitan area. Christian Blanc and Maurice Leroy are responsible for the Capital Region in government. The mission of the Société du Grand Paris is to build the Grand Paris Express metro project. But it is the Ayrault government that, after 2012, has provided an institutional translation of the scope identified by the transport project by creating the Greater Paris metropolis, defined by the law of January 27, 2014 as part of the Act III of Decentralization. On 1 January 2016, it brings together Paris, the communes of the small crown and seven communes of the great crown.

List of mayors

Anne Hidalgo, current mayor of Paris (since 2014).

The peculiarity of the district voting method means that, in his first election in 2001, Bertrand Delanoë was a minority in number of votes but had been elected by a higher number of advisers from Paris.

Budget and taxation

The initial budget for 2011 (city and department) amounted to 8,582 billion euros, of which 6,906 billion euros were spent on operations and about 1,676 on investment. The outstanding debt amounted to EUR 2.696 billion. Borrowings guaranteed by the Paris department in 2008 amounted to €26.6 billion.

After stability between 2000 and 2008, tax rates were increased in 2009 to 9.59% for the housing tax, 7.75% for the built property tax, 14.72% for the unbuilt land tax and 13.46% for the business tax. Taxation accounts for 55% of the city's revenue. Paris is one of the fifteen major French cities (with more than 1,000,000 inhabitants) that have not raised its property tax rates in five years. This stability applies only to tax rates. The real-estate bubble that developed during Delanoë's first term allowed for a huge increase in tax revenues from real estate. The number of transactions at the same time as their value has increased considerably. This tax bubble increased the number of staff at the Paris City Council from 40 to 49,000 (73,000 staff in 2013 for the Paris City Council and the Paris department according to the Ifrap). The explosion of this temporary housing bubble leaves the city hall with a surplus of permanent expenses to finance otherwise. That is why Bertrand Delanoë announced in 2008 the creation of a new 3% departmental tax on land (paid only by landlords) and an increase in property tax rates. For the period 2007-2012, the National Union of Real Estate Property (UNPI) calculates that Paris is the city that has experienced the strongest national increase in its property tax (+ 67.90% compared to 21.17% on average), due in particular to the creation of this departmental rate.

After six years without any increase in local tax rates (2001 to 2008 included) voted by Parisian elected officials, and then two years of increase (2009 and 2010), the municipality has committed itself not to raise the rate of 4 local taxes any more. According to Capital magazine of June 2010, Paris remains the city with the lowest local taxes.

The Paris City Council's debt ratio (city and department) is 39% of its resources, far less than the national average of the major cities (89%). For 2010 and 2011, the city has the highest rating of financial rating agencies, the "AAA", which allows it to borrow at the best rates to invest and build. Following the sharp rise in debt, a "quasi-quadrupling of the debt of Paris between 2001 and 2014," rating agencies downgraded Paris in 2012 and 2013 to AA+.

In a book entitled Accounts and legends of Paris, Delanoë Management Review (2011), journalist Dominique Foing analyzes, on the basis of the reports of the Inspectorate General of the City of Paris and the regional chamber of accounts of Île-de-France, the management of the years 2001-2011 of the City of Paris: municipal spending is reported to have increased by 44.45% ("the tax revenue, including property taxes, collected on Parisian taxpayers has increased from 1.7 billion euros in the 2001 budget to 2.5 billion euros in the 2008 budget, or 47% increase"), meaning for them an increase in tax revenues of 70% between 2 2001 and 2011; at the same time, operating expenditure would have increased by eur 2 billion, with debt relatively low in 2011, increasing by eur 1 billion.

Since 2011, tax rates have been increased to 13.38% for the housing tax, 8.37% for the property tax on built properties, 16.67% for the property tax on non-built properties and 16.52% for the business property assessment (CFE).

Judicial and administrative bodies

The Paris Magistrate Court is located in the Palais de Justice, on the Île de la Cité. This is the jurisdiction that deals with the largest number of cases in France. In each district there is a court of instance. Designed by Renzo Piano, the City of Paris is due to be completed in 2017 at Porte de Clichy, bringing together all the services of the TGI, spread between the Île de la Cité and four other sites, the police court and the courts of instance.

The Judicial City under construction in Batignolles.

The Paris Commercial Court is located at the quay of Corsica, also on the Île de la Cité. The Paris police court is located on rue de Cambrai in the 19^th arrondissement, and the Conseil de prud’hommes in Paris on rue Louis-Blanc in the 10^th arrondissement.

In addition to the city's courts, the courts of several departments report to the Paris Court of Appeal: Seine-et-Marne, Essonne, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne and Yonne. The jurisdiction of this court concerns 12.6% of the French population, or 7,605,603 persons in 2004. The other departments of Île-de-France as well as Eure-et-Loir depend on the Versailles Court of Appeal.

In the administrative order, Paris is under the jurisdiction of the administrative court of Paris. Appeals are brought before the Administrative Court of Appeal in Paris, which also hears appeals from the administrative courts of Mata-Utu, Melun, New Caledonia and French Polynesia. In Paris, the supreme national courts are also represented: Constitutional Council, Court of Cassation and Council of State.

In Paris, some prisons have remained famous: the Grand Châtelet (on the right bank) housed the king's prison, and its annex, the Petit Châtelet (at the entrance of the Petit-Pont on the left bank), a place of incarceration from the ^14th century, was demolished in 1782. Three prisons have become historical symbols: the Conciergerie, the Bastille and the dungeon of Vincennes. The Palais de Justice had its own prison, the Conciergerie, which, after hosting among others the Girondins and Marie-Antoinette during the French Revolution, continued to serve as a temporary prison until 1914. The Bastille, built from 1370 and became exclusively a state prison under Richelieu, was, contrary to the general idea, a "luxury" prison for a number of prisoners never exceeding forty. The dungeon of Vincennes, also a state prison until 1784, but more house arrest than a real place of incarceration, continued to serve occasionally as a prison until the Second Empire.

There is only one prison in Paris, the Prison de la Santé, opened in 1867. The main prisons in France are now in Fresnes and Fleury-Merogis, to which Poissy's central house must be added.

Hygiene is managed by the Paris City Health and Hygiene Department.

Crime

Central Paris also explains why the city is sometimes the victim of attacks. Both under Napoleon I and, closer to us, during the attack on the RER B at Saint-Michel in July 1995 or at the time of those of November 13, 2015, Parisian history is punctuated with these events of high symbolic value, which has consequences on daily life in the city, particularly with the introduction of these events the vigipirate plan, which sees a strengthened presence of police, gendarmes and military near the tourist and strategic sites of the capital.

The Île-de-France region alone accounts for more than a quarter of the crimes committed in metropolitan France. Within the region, the great crown, the small crown and Paris within the walls each account for about one third of the total facts recorded. The typology of Parisian crime remains largely dominated by thefts that account for two-thirds of crimes. In 2006, 255,238 cases were recorded, i.e. a crime rate of 118.58 acts per 1,000 inhabitants (crimes and crimes), which is almost double the national average (61.03 places) but is in the average of the major cities of France (Lyon: 109,22, Lille: 118,93, Nice: 119,52, Marseille: 120.62). The share of women involved is less than 15% (slightly below the national average) and the share of minors is 11.02%, seven points below the French average of 18.33%. On the other hand, the share of foreigners (resident in France with a residence permit) is higher than the French average of 20.73%.

The first months of 2019 show, after an increase in 2018, an increase in almost all statistical indicators of delinquency. In October 2019, for example, intentional attacks on physical integrity in Paris increased by 9% (more than 35,000 attacks since the beginning of this year).

Central Paris

This situation is the result of a long evolution, in particular the centralizing conceptions of monarchies and republics, which give a considerable role to the capital in the country and tend to concentrate institutions there. Since the 1960s, however, government policies have oscillated between deconcentration and decentralization. The macro-cephaly that the city has reached is reflected in the convergence of most of the country's central road and rail networks and the disproportionate demographic and economic disparities between the capital and the province.

Twinning

Paris has been twinned with one city, Rome, since 1956, with the slogan "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris" (in Italian "Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi").

The city has also concluded friendship and cooperation pacts with many cities around the world, including Tokyo in 1982, Tel Aviv in 1985, Berlin in 1987, Madrid in 2000 and Dakar in 2011.

Paris plays a leading cultural, diplomatic, political, military and economic role in the history of Europe and the world.

Diplomacy, Army

At the diplomatic level, international events were taking place there, for example in 1948 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted, in 2008 the Union for the Mediterranean was founded, in 2011 Palestine became a member of UNESCO, in 2015 the Paris climate agreement was adopted, in 2015 17 was held at the One Planet Summit and in 2018 a summit on Libya, in 2019 the international conference for peace and solidarity, the summit on the state of global biodiversity, a meeting on the Ukrainian crisis.

Paris is the diplomatic capital of France, which, according to an American study, has since 2017 become the most influential country in the world.

The Paris Peace Forum, an international event on issues of global governance and multilateralism created in 2018 by French President Emmanuel Macron, is held annually in Paris.

As the capital of France, it is also at the heart of the history of the European Union.

It is also in Paris that the French army's headquarters are located, which in 2017 was ranked second in Europe behind Russia and fifth in the world according to the Power Index established by GlobalFirePower. From 1950 to the withdrawal of France from NATO's military command in 1967 Paris was the headquarters of the Grand Headquarters of Allied Powers in Europe.

European and international institutions

Paris is the seat of European bodies such as the European Securities and Markets Authority and the European Banking Authority.

But also several international organizations: UNESCO, OECD, the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), etc.

In 2017, the Île-de-France region hosts more international institutions (7 in Île-de-France) than London and New York (2 in London and 2 in New York).

Economy, Bank, Finance, Insurance

The La Défense business district.

In 2017, the Île-de-France region hosts more corporate headquarters of very large companies (27 Fortune Global 500 companies in Île-de-France) than New York and London (17 in New York, 16 in London).

In 2017, La Défense's business district was the largest in Europe, the second-largest in the world after Singapore for its dynamic real estate, and the fourth-largest in terms of its attractiveness.

The French capital is home to four of Europe's ten largest banks. Worldwide, it hosts the headquarters of two of the world's ten largest banks (BNP Paribas in Paris and Crédit Agricole in Montrouge in the metropolis of Greater Paris). Finally, several banks have transferred teams from London to Paris since Brexit began.

Pascale D'Amore, Associate Editor of Decision Makers magazine, reported in 2019: "Paris is the second largest insurance market in Europe and the first stock exchange in the euro area."

The Place de Paris is the headquarters of the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) and the European Banking Authority (EBA). Philippe Allard, Chief of Staff of the EBA, writes: "Paris is a major financial center, which is not afraid of comparison with London".

The Place de Paris is home to 33 leading French companies in their sector.

It is home to the headquarters of the first European Insurance Group (AXA), but also to the European headquarters of the Chubb Insurance Group.

The head office of Renault, which heads the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi alliance, the first worldwide automobile group in the first half of 2017, is located in Boulogne-Billancourt, in the metropolis of Greater Paris.

The metropolis of Grand Paris also hosts the headquarters of the main French television groups (Groupe TF1, France Télévisions, France Info). In Boulogne-Billancourt is the headquarters of TF1 which is the first commercial chain in Europe.

Cost of living, French fortunes

Paris is one of the most expensive cities in the world: in 2018, it was ranked as the most expensive to live on an equal footing or in front of Singapore and Hong Kong. Paris has five of the most expensive streets in Europe.

Among the French fortunes located in the Paris region we can mention the businessman Bernard Arnault, CEO of LVMH, the world's leading group in the luxury sector, one of the world's three largest fortunes (the richest man in the world in January 2020, evolutionary ranking) with the Americans Jeff Bezos and Bill Gates.

Liliane Bettencourt (1922-2017), in 2016 the wealthiest woman in the world and the 11th world fortune, lived in Neuilly-sur-Seine.

Luxury, haute couture, jewelry...

The Hermès shop, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré, on the corner with rue Boissy-d'Anglas, two of the most luxurious streets in Paris.

Boutique Chanel, place Vendôme.

Lafayette galleries, boulevard Haussmann.

Paris is the luxury capital of the world.

The so-called "fashion" has an ancient origin in France where it goes back to the ^fourteenth century, then develops at the Court of Versailles from Louis XIV to Louis XVI where Rose Bertin provided Queen Marie-Antoinette in dresses.

Lanvin, founded in 1889 by Jeanne Lanvin, is the oldest French couture house still in business.

In 1900, there were about twenty "haute couture" houses in Paris, in 1946 about a hundred, and fifteen in the early 2000s. In the late 2010s, among the oldest and most prestigious were Chanel, Dior, Yves Saint Laurent; others are also based in Paris, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, Christian Lacroix, Pierre Balmain, new designers who make their name for themselves beyond France.

These haute couture houses are excellent in fashion, and sometimes in perfumery through third-party companies. It should be recalled that under the Ancien Regime, the Queen of France, Marie-Antoinette, had a perfumer, who was also the perfumer of the Court, in the person of Jean-Louis Fargeon. Thus, the No. 5 perfumes of Chanel or Arpège, which appeared in the 1920s, became unavoidable, just like Miss Dior in the 1940s.

Since the ^19th century, beside the fashion market, accessories have developed with perfumery, leather goods, ready-to-wear, jewelry, shoes, handbags, with Hermès (1837), Vuitton (1854), Lancôme (1935), Longchamp (1948), Givenchy (1952), Christian Louboutin (1991), etc.

At the beginning of the ^21st century, Paris faced competition from New York, London and Milan, but in 2020 Paris Fashion Week remained the most prestigious of the four main weeks of international parades and Paris remained the capital of fashion. Furthermore, haute couture status only exists in Paris. In other cities, these are just ready-to-wear parades.

The city thus occupies a prominent place on the world stage in luxury sectors. In 2017 Paris ranked first city in the world, ahead of London, for the number of openings in the luxury and premium products sector. The shops are mainly concentrated in the 1st, 2nd and 8th arrondissements: rue de la Paix, place Vendôme, rue Saint-Honoré, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré, rue Royale, avenue Montaigne, among others. On Place Vendôme there is a Cartier boutique, the jewelers Chaumet and Boucheron, as well as Chanel and Dior. Rues Saint-Honoré and Faubourg Saint-Honoré are home to Louis Vuitton, Guerlain, other luxury brands, and on the corner with rue Boissy-d'Anglas, Hermès and Lanvin. Avenue Montaigne, the headquarters of Dior, another Louis Vuitton boutique, and the great names of French and foreign haute couture. Rue Cambon, the historic boutique of Chanel. In addition to French brands there are also foreign luxury brands (Chopard, Gucci, etc.).

In Paris is the headquarters of LVMH (Arnault Group majority shareholder), the world's leading luxury group. But also numerous outlets as well as shops of all luxury brands independent or affiliated to major groups like LVMH or Kering (Pinault family majority shareholder), third world group in 2018 in the luxury sector and which also has its headquarters in Paris.

Paris is the city with the most palaces in the world.

Luxury French brands such as Chanel, LVMH Group (Christian Dior, Louis Vuitton...), Kering Group (Yves Saint Laurent, Boucheron...), Hermès and L'Oréal are the most appreciated, most valued and most influential in the world for fashion and beauty.

In 2019, six (including the top three) of the world's ten most profitable luxury brands were French and headquartered in Paris.

L'Oréal (Bettencourt family, majority shareholder) is the world's leading cosmetics company and the group's head office is located in Paris.

"LVMH — Kering — Hermès — L'Oreal. A quartet that, according to various rankings and other rankings, has raised France to the firmament of world luxury. "

World-renowned designers practiced their trade in Paris, such as Charles Frederick Worth (1825-1895), Jeanne Paquin (1869-1936), Paul Poiret (1879-1944), Gabrielle Chasnel, also known as Coco Chanel (1883-1971), Christian Dior (1905-1957), Pierre Balmain (1914-1982), André Courreges (1923-2016), Karl Lagerfeld (1933-1) 2019), Yves Saint Laurent (1936-2008), Kenzō Takada (1939-2020), or still practiced as John Galliano (1960), etc.

In 2017, Paris was ranked as the most elegant city in the world.

Paris is the seat of the Colbert Committee, which promotes French luxury internationally.

Paris is also one of the capital cities of shopping, with Galeries Lafayette and Printemps for example. The city saw the birth of modern department stores, based on the revolutionary idea at the time, of presenting a wide and deep assortment, fixed and apparent prices, direct access and presentation of the goods in a retail space whose layout, composition and decor were thought out. The first example of this kind is Le Bon Marché, transformed in 1852.

Works of art, French language, culture, dance, federations

In the heart of the French capital, the Louvre Museum is the largest and most visited art museum in the world. It is within this museum that La Joconde is located which is the most famous painting in the world and the most visited piece of art in the world.

Every year, the International Fair of Contemporary Art (FIAC) is held in Paris, "the largest museum in the world for four days".

The International Organization of the Francophonie (OIF) is based in Paris.

It is the city that has hosted the largest number of international exhibitions (seven since the ^nineteenth century), in front of American cities, London, etc.

In Paris is the Ballet de l'Opéra national de Paris, the oldest classical dance company in the world (the Royal Dance Academy was founded in 1661 under the reign of King Louis XIV) and one of the most prestigious.

In Paris is the headquarters of the International Automobile Federation.

High gastronomy

The French gastronomic meal was listed as a World Heritage Site in 2010.

Of the top ten tables in the world in 2018, four are in Paris, making it the best-endowed city in the world.

In the past, chefs have worked in Paris, such as Marie-Antoine Carême (1784-1833). Nowadays, three-star Michelin chefs practice their culinary art or have some of their establishments in Paris and its agglomeration, such as Alain Ducasse, Guy Savoy, Yannick Alléno, Éric Frechon, Kei Kobayashi, Frédéric Anton, etc.

Paris is also the headquarters of companies such as Fauchon, Hédiard, Dalloyau, Debauve & Gallais, which are among the oldest and most prestigious houses of French haute gastronomie and also internationally.

Monuments, tourism, transport

Several monuments in Paris are listed as World Heritage Sites, such as the Notre-Dame Cathedral, the most visited monument in Europe and one of the most visited, if not the most visited, monument in the world until its partial fire in 2019.

Eiffel Tower and Paris embarkations

In 2019, it attracts nearly 34 million visitors and 17.5 million foreign visitors in 2018^{[ref. necessary]} which made it the sixth most visited city in the world and the fourth capital in that year.

It is the first in Europe and one of the first in the world for hotel capacity, tourism and business trips (trade fairs, events, etc.).

The Ile-de-France region welcomes approximately 42 million tourists per year and Paris within the city walls approximately 32 million in 2013, including approximately 15.5 million foreigners, making it the most visited city in the world.

In 2009, the city's top 50 cultural sites registered 71.6 million entries, a slight increase from 2008.

But although Paris is today the most visited capital in the world, it is considered one of the least welcoming and most expensive: according to a^{[insufficient source]} survey of 60 cities with 14,000 people worldwide, it ranks first for beauty and dynamism, but at the end of the ranking in terms of the quality of the welcome (52^th out of 60) and the prices charged (only 55^e). In order to improve the welcome of tourists and break this bad reputation, inhabitants, members of the greeter network and part of the crowd-sourced tourism movement, welcome more and more visitors each year for free walks to discover Paris and Parisians.

The Paris-Nord station is the first European station, and the third world (behind Shinjuku station in Tokyo and another station in Chicago), including the metro station. According to another ranking, it is the 24^th world's top 23 being Japanese.

Charles de Gaulle Airport is the second largest airport in Europe after London Heathtrow Airport.

Ile-de-France RER line A is the busiest in Europe (2015 data) and the world (2009 data).

Sport

Paris hosts international tournaments in different disciplines.

The 1938 and 1998 World Cup finals, the 2007 and 2023 Rugby World Cup finals, and the 1960, 1984 and 2016 European Football Championships were also held or will be held in Paris.

It hosts the Roland Garros Grand Slam tennis tournament every year.

It organized the Olympic Games in 1900 and 1924, and in 2024 will become the second city with London to host them three times. The International Olympic Committee was founded at the 1st Olympic Congress in Paris in 1894, and it was in that city that its seat was held until 10 April 1915.

Every year since 1975, on the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, the final sprint of the last stage of the Tour de France, the third most attended sporting event in the world, takes place.

In Paris, two of the world's most prestigious horse awards are held each year: the Arc de Triomphe prize at the Paris Longchamp racecourse and the Prix d'Amérique at the Vincennes racecourse.

Demographics

Growth of the Parisian population since the census in 1801.

The most populous French city, Paris is fourth among Europe's urban areas behind Moscow, Istanbul and London, and the world's 32 most populous. In 2016, the municipality of Paris had 2,190,327 inhabitants and its urban area (agglomeration and peri-urban crown) 12,568,755 inhabitants.

Change in the number of inhabitants

In 2016, Paris had 2,190,327 inhabitants. Since 2004, censuses in municipalities with populations of more than 10,000 have been conducted by means of annual sample surveys.

Demographic evolution of Paris since 1793 (in a territory that expanded in 1860)

Sources: see table above.

Census 2015 Île-de-France
Country/territory of birth	Population
Metropolitan France	9,165,570
Algeria	310,019
Portugal	243,490
Morocco	241,403
Tunisia	117,161
Guadeloupe	80,062
Martinique	77,300
Turkey	69,835
China	67,540
Mali	60,438
Italy	56,692
Ivory Coast	55,022
Senegal	52,758
Romania	49,124
DR. Congo	47,091
Spain	47,058
Sri Lanka	42,016
Cameroon	41,749
Poland	38,550
Republic of Congo	36,354
Haiti	35,855
Vietnam	35,139
Cambodia	31,258
Reunion	28,869
India	26,507
Serbia	26,119
Germany	21,620
Lebanon	20,375
Mauritius	19,506
Madagascar	19,281
Pakistan	18,801
United Kingdom	18,209
Russia	18,022
United States	17,548
Other countries and territories	846,914

Number of inhabitants of the town and the urban area

As of January 1, 2013, the town defined by the Insee includes 412 municipalities and totals 10,601,122 inhabitants. It is the second largest European city, behind Moscow and in front of London, and the 25^th of the world in 2014, according to the UN. Its urban area, including municipalities located in a strong area of influence of the city, includes 1,794 municipalities and reaches 12,405,426 inhabitants as of 1 January 2013 in the 2010 delimitation, making it the 29th largest urban area in the world and one of the three largest urban areas Europe with Moscow and London.

Immigration

French censuses, as required by legislation, do not raise questions about ethnicity or religion but collect information about the place of birth. It is thus possible to determine that the urban area of Paris is one of the most multicultural in Europe. At the 2011 census, 23.1% of the total population of Île-de-France was born outside of metropolitan France (compared to 22.2% in 2006 and 19.7% in 1999). At the 1999 census, 4.2% of the population of the Paris urban area consisted of recent immigrants (who arrived in France in the five years before 1999), mostly from China and the African continent. Moreover, the Paris metropolitan area also has 15% Muslims.

The Brady Passage, a major place for Indo-Pakistani immigration in Paris.

The first massive wave of immigration to Paris began around 1820 with the arrival of German farmers fleeing the agricultural crisis and "open" to France since the presence of the revolutionary and Napoleonic armies across the Rhine. Several other waves of migration have continued unabated to this day: Italians and Jews of Central Europe during the ^nineteenth century, Russians after the revolution of 1917, inhabitants of the French colonies during the First World War, Poles between the two world wars, Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese and Maghreb from the 1950s to the 1970s, Sephardic Jews after the independence of the countries from North Africa, Africans and Asians since then.

The location of immigrants in the city varies according to the community's membership: the 18th and 19th arrondissements are home to a large proportion of immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in the Château Rouge district and close to the Barbès boulevard (Goutte-d'Or district), while the Belleville district is home to major Maghreb and Chinese communities. In the 13th arrondissement is the Asian district of Paris, the largest "Chinatown" in Europe. The sixteenth arrondissement is one of the areas with the highest concentration of migrants from the United States. In the 10th arrondissement, between the Gare du Nord and the La Chapelle metro station and towards the Faubourg Saint-Denis, there are Indian, Pakistani and Sri Lankan districts, notably Strasbourg-Saint-Denis, and Turkish districts.

In 2005 in Paris, 41.3% of young people under the age of 18 had at least one immigrant parent, of whom 12.1% were of Maghreb origin and 9.9% were from sub-Saharan Africa.

Demographic decline in Paris and recent recovery

The demographics of Paris are not autonomous: it is totally linked to that of its agglomeration. This phenomenon derives from the small administrative size of Paris, which implies that space sharing is not taking place at the scale of the city but of its region.

Despite the increase in the number of dwellings, the population of Paris has declined significantly since the 1950s and 1960s, but this decline has been contained since 1999: According to the latest census published by the Insee, between 1999 and 2011 the population of Paris grew by 125,700, to 2,249,975.

The main explanation lies in the relative evolution between natural increment (the difference between the number of births and death) and the migration balance (the difference between the apparent number of arrivals and the number of departures). Natural growth was positive but relatively small between 1968 and 1990, while departures largely outperformed arrivals, with a negative migration balance. The difference between the two balances resulted in a total negative balance, i.e. a decrease in the population. Since 1999, the natural balance has increased, reflecting an increase in the number of births (the birth rate is now above the national average, with 14.8 states between 1999 and 2006 and 14.1 between 2006 and 2011), and a decrease in the number of deaths. Conversely, the migration deficit decreased (- 0.2% per year between 2006 and 2011 and - 0.4% per year from 1999 to 2006, compared with - 0.7% per year between 1990 and 1999, - 0.6% per year from 1982 to 1 1999, - 1.1% per year from 1975 to 1982 and - 2.1% per year from 1968 to 1975). In total, the population of Paris is therefore starting to increase and to rejuvenate.

Second, the capital had suffered a decline in the number of principal residences from the early 1960s to 1990s. But, since 1990, the movement has reversed, accelerating the growth of their number since 1990: 1,165,541 principal residences in 2011 compared to 1,111,721 in 1999 and 1,095,090 in 1990^{[ref. necessary]}. This movement is part of a general trend to increase the population of the cities centers of metropolitan agglomerations in France and Europe. The statistics on construction in Paris also show a constant movement to transform industrial and handicraft premises, or shops on floors, into housing in the central districts, in addition to the municipal policy on the construction of social housing promoted by the percentage rules introduced, in particular at the local level of town planning, and which support the increase in the number of housing units in the capital.

Finally, the average size of Parisian households has decreased significantly: the decline in cohabitation of adult generations and the reduction in the number of children per couple have long been the main explanation. However, with fertility now constant, or even slightly rising since 2000, the decrease in the size of Parisian households is mainly due to the attraction of young adults who, without children, can enjoy the leisure and jobs of the capital and face the cost of real estate by making do with small areas. Conversely, couples with new children tend to migrate to the suburbs, where their homes are more suitable and cheaper. This dynamic in Paris-suburbs explains the respective specialties of the capital (of which 54.6% of the accommodations have only one or two rooms) and of the rest of the region.

Parisian families and households

The city's population is relatively young: in 2008, according to the Insee, the percentage of people under 35 is 46%, four points higher than the national average of 41.8%.

Parisian families at Place des Vosges.

Like all metropolises, Paris has more students, active young adults and older people than the country's average; families are therefore under-represented. In 2008, there were 501,836 families with 1,433,376 people (68% of the Parisian population), for 1,148,720 households. 51.4% of households were composed of one person: these 590,122 people living alone accounted for nearly 28% of all Parisians. So 4% of Parisians live neither alone nor with their families. 43% of Parisian families are couples without children under the age of 25, representing 433,000 persons, 39.3% of families are couples with at least one child and 17.6% of families with at least one child are single parents (compared to 13.5% in metropolitan France). In 2008, 70.2% of Parisian couples (or 27.5% of the total population of Paris) were married, compared to 76.9% of couples in metropolitan France; 21.5% of Parisian couples are composed of two single persons. These family structures are partly explained by the large number of divorces, with Paris leading the French departments in the number of new divorces per 1,000 married (20.5 in 2006-2008 according to a study by India). It is also in Paris that the most Pacs are signed in France.

Conversely, the cyclical fertility indicator of 1.57 children per woman in 2008 is lower than the regional (2.01) and national (2.0) average. The number of children per household is low: 43 per cent of families have no children under the age of 25 and nearly 25 per cent have only one child; the share of large families (8.9% of families with three or more children) is lower than the regional average (11.8%) and national average (9.6%), mainly because of the small size of the housing and high property prices.

Education

The educational institutions of the city of Paris are the responsibility of the Paris Academy.

Educational institutions

In the 2005-2006 school year, 263,812 pupils were enrolled in the public sector, including 135,570 in the first and 128,242 in the second grades, and 138,527 in the private sector, of which 91,818 were enrolled under contract. Paris has establishments in priority education zones (ZEP) or in priority education networks (REP): 214 schools and 32 colleges (one in five Parisian children) fall under these rankings.

In 2007, the city had a total of 881 public institutions, including 323 kindergartens, 334 elementary schools, six specialized schools (hospital schools), 110 colleges, 72 general and technological high schools, 34 vocational high schools and two public experimental high schools. In addition, there are 256 private establishments under contract: 110 nursery and elementary schools, one specialized school, 67 colleges, 73 general and technological high schools and five private vocational high schools under contract.

In secondary education, the Louis-le-Grand and Henri-IV high schools are national or international in scope.

• Henri-IV High School.

• Condorcet High School.

• Lycée Louis-le-Grand.

Academic life

In 2007, there were approximately 585,000 students in Île-de-France, or more than a quarter of the French total.

There is a certain desire for decentralization, which led in particular in the 1990s to the transfer of the ENA to Strasbourg and of higher schools in Lyon. However, most of the most prestigious national establishments are still located in the Paris region, such as the major engineering schools (Fondation ParisTech, Arts et Métiers, CentraleSupélec, Polytechnique), the major business schools (HEC Paris, ESSEC and ESCP Europe), and the major establishments such as Sciences Po and Paris-Dauphine.

History

Campus des Grands Moulins of the new University of Paris, created in 2019.

Since the ^12th century, Paris has been one of Europe's major intellectual centers, particularly in theology and philosophy. 1200 is symbolically remembered as the founding date of the University of Paris, when Philippe Auguste grants a special status to the corporation (teachers and students) by freeing it from public justice and police, making them subject to ecclesiastical justice. Colleges, master's and student's residences, where most of the teaching is also held, are organized into faculties. The Sorbonne was founded in 1257. The university lives mainly around the Sainte-Geneviève mountain, in the heart of the Latin Quarter, which spans a large part of the 5^th and 6^th arrondissements. The area is still a major university center today.

From the ^18th century, specialized schools were established for certain professions. They are the basis of today's great schools. The Polytechnic School and the Higher Normal School were founded during the Revolution. The University of Modern Paris was formed in the ^19th century by six faculties: law, medicine, pharmacy, literature, theology and science. In the ^20th century, the number of students was growing sharply. After the revolt of students in May 1968, the Sorbonne is the epicenter, the Université de Paris was reorganized into thirteen autonomous institutions (Paris I in Paris XIII), each specialized in a relatively delimited field.

Current situation

Intra-Muros Paris

The chapel of the Sorbonne, symbol of the University of Paris.

Paris within the walls remains the major French university center. Universities Paris I to VII are grouped on the left bank in three boroughs (5^th, 6^{th and 13th).} The Latin Quarter thus retains an important place, with the oldest settlements: the Faculty of Letters of Sorbonne University, the École Normale Supérieure (Université PSL) and the Collège de France. Other institutions of higher education are also located in this area, including the Institut d'études politique de Paris (Sciences Po), the University of Paris II Panthéon-Assas, the Faculty of Science and Engineering at Sorbonne University, the École des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), etc.

The University of Paris-Dauphine (PSL University) is however off-center. In addition, there is a certain desire to extend the university district to the east of the city, in the 13th arrondissement, where the Bibliothèque nationale de France is located, and where several university buildings have opened, such as the University of Paris VII - Diderot, which became the University of Paris in 2019 (amalgamation with the University of Paris V - René Descartes) and previously established in the Arrondissement. Since 1912, the city has been home to the main campus of Arts et Métiers near the Place d'Italie.

Parisian suburbs

Universities have been established in the suburbs since the 1960s, the oldest being Nanterre in 1964. At the same time, several major schools have also left the center of Paris, in particular to have larger spaces.

Building Francis Bouygues of the Université Paris-Saclay (establishment-component CentraleSupélec).

The Saclay Plateau, south of Paris, has become an important pole. It includes, in a fairly large area, the University of Paris-Saclay (formerly Paris XI), and some major schools (HEC in 1964; Supélec in 1975, which became CentraleSupélec; the Polytechnic School in 1976; the École Normale Supérieure Paris-Saclay in 2020), and public and private laboratories. As part of the Greater Paris project, the Paris-Saclay Technology Cluster project was launched in 2010 and consists mainly of the installation of eight major schools and several research organizations. Inspired by the Silicon Valley model, it is expected to concentrate 20-25% of French public research and 350,000 jobs by 2020.

In 1991, four other universities were established in the suburbs: Cergy-Pontoise, Évry, Marne-la-Vallée (which became the Gustave Eiffel University in 2020) and Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. A sign of decentralizing voluntarism, "Paris" does not appear in their name, unlike other nearby universities. In 2025, the universities of Evry and Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines will merge with the Université Paris-Saclay.

Higher education institutions of the city of Paris

The city of Paris itself maintains seven institutions of higher education. Four are dedicated to the applied arts, including the prestigious École Boulle (furnishings) and École Estienne (graphic arts, including bindery), two are engineering schools (École des Engineers de la Ville de Paris and École supérieure de physics et de chemie industrielle) and the École du Breuil is horticultural in character.

Cultural events and festivities

Republican guards at the July 14 military parade.

Throughout the year, Paris hosts numerous festivities: At the end of January, the streets of the 13th arrondissement liven up with Chinese New Year celebrations; in February-March, the traditional procession of the Carnival of Paris and the procession of the Mi-Lent; At the end of February, the international agricultural trade fair takes place; March, the Book Fair, the Spring of the Poets and the Festival of Sacred Music are held; In late April or early May, the Paris Fair is reminiscent of large medieval gatherings.

The Paris semi-marathon and the Paris marathon take place in March and April, on the streets of the city; the Grand Paris race, from Paris-Center to the Stade de France in May, the French Tennis Internationale de Roland-Garros from the end of May to the beginning of June; Gay pride in June, Music Day on June 21; the Paris Jazz Festival from the end of June to the end of July; Classic with Green from mid-August to early September at the Parc Floral de Paris; FNAC Live Paris in front of and in the City Hall in early July; the Paris Crossing at the end of July; the Paris Festival in the summer from early July to early August; The Gay Games in early August; the arrival of the last stage of the Tour de France cycliste at the end of July; from late August to mid-September Jazz à la Villette, Techno Parade and La Parisienne in September, the Festival d'Automne de Paris from early September to the end of December.

Several film festivals are held throughout the year; Cinema en Plein Air in La Villette, from mid-July to mid-August.

Since 2002, the festive character of the city has been accentuated by the Paris Plages operation, organized for two months between July and August, which consists of turning a part of the Seine quays into a beach, with sand, deckchairs and activities, and with the Nuit Blanche, which allows the public to attend free different expressions of contemporary art throughout the city, during the night of the first Saturday to the first Sunday of October. In April and May, the traditional Throne Fair takes place.

July 14th is the occasion of the traditional military parade on the Champs-Élysées, the Concert of Paris on the Champ-de-Mars, and the fireworks display from the Trocadéro gardens.

October is the Mondial de l'automobile, the even years, alternating with the world of two-wheeled the odd years. The same month hosts the International Fair of Contemporary Art (FIAC). On the second Saturday of October, Montmartre returns to its wine-growing past during the harvest festival of Montmartre. One of the oldest art events in Paris is the Biennale de Paris, founded in 1959 by André Malraux.

Health

Fronton of the Hôtel-Dieu.

Many hospitals are located in Paris, some of which are particularly old, as the hospital tradition goes back to the Middle Ages. The Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 651 by Saint Landry, Bishop of Paris, is the oldest hotel in the city. Symbol of charity and hospitality, it was the only hospital in Paris until the ^12th century.

Most of the establishments are covered by the AP-HP, Public Assistance - Hôpital de Paris, a public health institution created by the law of January 10, 1849 and reporting to the city of Paris. She acts as the Regional Hospital Center for Paris and the Île-de-France and employs more than 90,000 people, including many doctors and hospital civil servants. The Hotel de Miramion in the 5th arrondissement, which once housed a hospital, has been transformed into a museum of public assistance - Hôpital de Paris and evokes the city's hospital history. Among its main establishments, can be cited in Paris within the walls: the hospital Necker-Enfants Illnesses, the hospital Cochin, the Pity-SalPêtrière, Saint-Antoine, Saint-Louis, Bichat-Claude Bernard or the newborn, the European hospital Georges-Pompidou.

In addition, the Invalides Military Hospital, also known as the Invalides National Institution, is open for medical and surgical care for the institution's residents, veterans, serving members of the military, but also for the insured. It is not under the authority of the PA-HP, but is under the direction of the Minister of Defense, responsible for Veterans Affairs.

In a small crown (close to the suburbs), Henri Mondor (Créteil), Bicêtre (Le Kremlin-Bicêtre), Raincy-Montfermeil and Beaujon (Clichy) are among the best known. The great crown has several generally intercommunal hospitals that do not fall under AP-HP: The hospitals Victor Dupouy d'Argenteuil and the Versailles Hospital are just some of the examples.

Other hospital institutions include the Quinze-vingts Hospital, founded in 1260 by Saint Louis and whose purpose was to collect the blind of Paris, the teaching hospitals of the armies (of the Val-de-Grâce, of Percy, of Bégin) or the American hospital of Paris, founded in 1906 and located in Neuilly-sur-Seine, which falls within a special status of a private non-profit establishment, approved and not covered by the Social Security.

Paris has a high medical density with 11.2 doctors per 10,000 inhabitants compared to only an average of 9.7 in France. However, the western districts (^VIIe, ^XVIe) are three times more equipped than the northern districts and is with a density of 6.5 for the 20th arrondissement and a global demographics has been declining since 2007 among generalists. Gynecologists (-16%) and pediatricians (-4%) fell sharply between 2011 and 2014.

Tuberculosis cases increased by 23.4% in Paris between 2015 and 2017. Vulnerable populations, living in collective or homeless housing, are most exposed to the disease.

Air pollution kills 6,600 Parisians every year, according to the Regional Health Observatory.

According to a survey conducted in 2019 by the Advocate and the CMU-C Fund, 38.2% of dentists, 26.2% of gynecologists, and 31% of liberal psychiatrists refuse patients who are economically precarious.

Sports

The Paris Saint-Germain football club and the Stade Français rugby union club are based in Paris. The finals of the 1938 and 1998 World Cup, the World Cup Rugby Cup at XV 2007 and 2023, and the European football championships of 1960, 1984 and 2016 have been held or will be held in Paris.

The Stade de France, with 80,000 seats, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located north of the capital, in the neighboring city of Saint-Denis.

Professional Clubs

The history of Paris is marked by sport, from the play of palms from the ^12th century to football in the ^21st century, to horse races and cycling in the ^20th century. The city has 360 sports facilities: 172 tennis courts, 131 municipal gymnasiums, 36 swimming pools (hosting 3.4 million individual entrances in 2006) and ten school basins, thirty-two municipal stadiums, two water sports bases, as well as six interdepartmental parks distributed in the three departments of the small crown.

Paris's main sports clubs are Paris Saint-Germain and its women's team (football), Paris Football Club (women's) (football), PSG Handball (handball), Stade français (rugby union) and Paris Volley (volleyball).

Official logotype of the City of Paris bid for the 2024 Olympics.

The Parc des Princes (48,527 places), built in 1897, rebuilt in 1932 and then in 1972 in the south-west of the capital, is the stadium of Paris Saint-Germain, which has been its resident club since 1974.

The Jean-Bouin stadium, built in 1925 next to the Parc des Princes, the historical stadium of the CASG Paris (the general society's athletic club), became the Paris Jean-Bouin, renovated first in 1972 and then again in 2013, is today the temple of Parisian rugby whose main club is the Stade français Paris.

The AccorHotels Arena (formerly the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy), a large, modular, enclosed space in the east of Paris opened in 1984, hosts numerous sporting competitions but also acts as a theater and hosts various events: concerts, ice rink, etc.

The Charléty stadium, inaugurated in 1939 and rebuilt in 1994, has been linked to students since its opening and remains the temple of amateur sport in Paris, includes an athletic stadium of 20,000 seats and a multi-sports room of 1,500 seats. The Paris University Club teams, as well as the Paris Football Club and Paris Volley clubs, are all there.

Paris was the host city for the 1938 FIFA World Cup matches and the 1998 FIFA World Cup matches.

The Stade de France (81,338 places), built in Saint-Denis in the near north suburbs for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is the center of the French football team that won this competition. It hosts the finals of the French Cup of Football and the Cup of the League. In 2000 and 2006, he also hosted the UEFA Champions League final. It is also used for home games of the French rugby union team during the Six Nations Tournament, for the Top 14 finals and sometimes for big games of the French Stade rugby teams and the Racing Club de France. Several rugby World Cup matches are played, including the final.

Paris hosts the 1900 Olympic Games and the 1924 Summer Olympics, but fails to compete for the 1992, 2008, and 2012 Olympic Games in Barcelona, Beijing, and London, respectively. After a new bid launched on June 23, 2015, the city won the 2024 Summer Olympics at the 131st session of the International Olympic Committee held on September 13, 2017 in Lima, Peru. Paris will thus become the second city after London to organize three times the Summer Olympics. Los Angeles, also a candidate, withdrew to organize the 2028 Games when the IOC decided to allocate both editions simultaneously, after the withdrawal of Budapest, Hamburg and Rome during the selection process.

The Tour de France departs every year from a different city, but always ends in Paris (at the Parc des Princes from 1903 and since 1975) on the Champs-Élysées.

Paris hosts the Semi-Marathon of Paris in March, the Marathon of Paris in April, the Grande Course of Grand Paris in May and the Parisian in September.

Tennis is another popular sport in Paris: the Internationales de France, held every year on the land of the Roland-Garros stadium near the Bois de Boulogne, are one of the four tournaments of the Grand Chelem of professional tennis.

• The Parc des Princes in February 2012.

• Central court of Roland-Garros stadium.

• Charléty Stadium.

Media

According to the linguist Philippe Boula de Mareüil, the standard for pronunciation of French "is attributed to the educated bourgeoisie of the capital, where all the channels of communication converge and where the major media are today installed. This pronunciation is broadcast by radio, television [...]. Paris acts both as a pole of attraction and a roller compressor".

Newspaper

The regional daily Le Parisien is available in ten departmental editions, including one in Paris, with a weekend supplement, and two free newspapers are distributed in the morning (20 minutes and Direct Matin).

The Official Shows and Le Figaroscope, on the other hand, offer every week the complete cultural program of the metropolis.

Local TV

In addition to the regional programs of the national channel France 3, there are a few associations or local authorities. Télif gathers local channels from the region on a single channel broadcast by cable, ADSL or satellite: VOTV (Val-d'Oise), Télessonne (Essonne), TVM Est parisien (Seine-Saint-Denis), TVFil78 (Yvelines) and RTV (Rosny-sous-Bois). Zaléa TV, a Parisian association, is periodically broadcast by radio depending on the licenses distributed which have sometimes pushed the channel to pirate broadcasts. Telepleasure.org, another non-profit channel, only broadcasts amateur programs. Both channels are available in 2007 via an Internet broadcast.

Seven local TNT channels have been broadcasting since March 20, 2008. These are NRJ Paris, IDF 1, and Cap 24. Four other channels then share the same channel: Tomorrow IDF, "TV of urbanity and diversity"; BDM TV, which is to go to the neighborhoods to talk culture and initiatives, Cinaps TV, a group of scientists and artists invent a television whose objective is to transmit knowledge and to cultivate curiosity. And finally, Tele Bocal, who works in the struggling neighborhoods, classified as "politics of the city".

Local websites

See: Press written in Île-de-France and Radio in Paris.

Cults

• Catholic Church: Diocese since the ^3rd century, the headquarters of Paris was erected as an archdiocese on October 20, 1622. Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris is the cathedral of the diocese. Since January 6, 2018, the archbishop is Michel Aupetit who has as auxiliary bishops ^Bishop Denis Jachiet, ^Bishop Thibault Verny and ^Bishop Philippe Marsset.

In 1939, the House of Anania was founded for catechumens. In 2005, there were 166 Catholic parishes hosting the faithful and 24 foreign missions, 730 priests and about 220 religious communities (140 women and about 80 men).

Among the great places of pilgrimage, the two main ones are the Sacré-Coeur of Montmartre basilica, where the faithful have ensured since 1885 the perpetual Adoration, and the chapel of Notre-Dame-de-la-Médaille-miracuous, where the Virgin Mary appeared several times in 1830 to Saint Catherine Labouré.

• Evangelical churches: Paris has seventy-two Evangelical Protestant churches of various denominations.
• Protesters: Paris has twenty-five parishes of the United Protestant Church of France, which brings together Reformers and Lutherans.
• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints: two parishes located on rue Saint-Merri in the 4th arrondissement and rue de Romainville in the 19th arrondissement.
• Jews: the city has ninety-six synagogues.
• Muslims: the great mosque of Paris has been welcoming the faithful since 1926 over 2.5 acres of land, the well of the Ermite in the 5th arrondissement. In addition to the Institute of the Cultures of Islam in the 18th century, there are also seventy-five mosques or prayer rooms, most of which are in homes.
• Buddhists: a temple is located in the Bois de Vincennes, on the southern shore of Lake Daumesnil, in an ancient pavilion of the colonial exhibition of 1931. Two others are located in the main Asian district of Paris, in the 13th arrondissement.
• Hindouists: one temple opened in 1985, dedicated to Ganesh, is located on Pajol street in the 18th arrondissement, and another in the 10th arrondissement
• Scientology: a place of worship as well as a Celebrity Center.
• Jehovah's Witnesses: the city has seven places of worship.

• Notre-Dame de Paris.

• Protestant temple of the Louvre Oratory.

• Cathedral of the Holy Trinity of Paris (Russian Orthodox).

• Great Mosque of Paris.

• Great Synagogue of Paris.

• Vincennes Pagoda.

With a gross domestic product (GDP) of EUR 709 billion ($811 billion) in 2019, just over 30% of GDP [4], the Paris region is one of the richest in Europe: if it were a country, it would be the eighteenth largest economy in the world, producing more wealth than Switzerland and Turkey

The city is, with its suburbs, the economic and commercial capital of France, as well as its first financial and stock exchange. In 2019, for example, it hosted the European Banking Authority for the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.

In 2017, the Parisian region is the tenth richest region in Europe with a gross domestic product per capita of €58,300 compared to €62,800 for Greater London and €92,600 for Luxembourg. With a gross domestic product (GDP) of €649 billion in 2014, it is a major European economic player.

Paris, like the rest of the Île-de-France region, but more markedly, is richer and more tertiary than the French average. Moreover, Paris is less specialized economically than other major global economic centers, notably London, which is particularly dynamic in the financial sector. However, according to Éric Le Boucher, Île-de-France is experiencing economic decline and job losses: "no capital region in the world loses its jobs like that of Paris, blinded by its brilliant past, poorly governed, fragmented in its egoisms, anemic because it is not firmly rooted in the global competition of ^twenty-first century metropolises". The same concerns are echoed by the architect Jean Nouvel, who believes it is imperative that Paris evolve, "or else become a museum city".

Paris has more office space than London (including demand placed for banks), though it is five times smaller. The real-estate dynamism of its La Défense business district is the second in the world after Singapore. A larger number of Fortune 500 groups have their headquarters there. Ile-de-France is the first European region, ahead of Greater London, for the jobs created by international settlements in 2007. Finally, the French capital annually files more patents than the English capital and has a greater proportion of researchers in its workforce. At present, the estimated $460 billion GDP at purchasing power parity in Paris is higher than in London (2005 figures). However, these comparisons should be made with caution, as the perimeters taken into account are not always the same. For example, Greater London, with a population of 7,517,700, does not represent the entire London metropolitan area, and city-specific developments can change the estimates.

According to the city council, the Parisian ambition is "to be both Rome and California" (one third of France's patents are filed in Paris).

The biggest economic sector is leisure tourism (cafes, hotels, restaurants and related services) and professional (trade fairs, congresses..). In the 2000s, Paris attracts nearly 30 million visitors per year, making it one of the most visited capitals in the world

It faces emerging competition from cities in Eastern or Southern Europe that are sometimes cheaper. Thus, Madrid is a serious competitor for leisure tourism, Vienna and Milan for trade fairs and congresses. Paris has a very diverse hotel fabric, at a lower cost than many other capitals for the 2 and 3 stars and still benefits from its reputation for elegance, luxury, perfumes, fashion and gastronomy. The cultural sector, both public and private, is also a major economic sector in Paris: publishing, media, music, cinemas, theaters, museums, galleries and art dealers, dance and theater companies ... cultural concentration is unparalleled in Europe. Paris and its metropolitan area bring together three-quarters of the intermittents of the show from all over the country.

Paris remains by far the department that gathers the most jobs in the region, with nearly 1,650,600 in 2004, or 31% of private jobs in the region, ahead of Hauts-de-Seine with 848,200 jobs (16%). The unemployment rate in Paris in the 1st quarter of 2020 was 6%[5], which is below the national rate, 7.8%, while for thirty years the rate in Paris was still higher than in France.

Parisian wages are very slightly higher than those in the region (19 euros per hour on average per year instead of 18.2 euros, 2002 figures) and well above the average wages in France (13.1 euros). However, the main reason for this gap is the high over-representation of executives, who make up 25% of employees. The city is characterized mainly by its high wage inequality: the 10% of the highest paid employees are four times more than the lowest paid 10%, slightly above the regional average (3.7), but far above the gap in the rest of France (2.6). Similarly, geographical inequalities also appear within the city itself: the average hourly wage offered in the 8^th arrondissement (€24.2) is 82% higher than in the 20^th arrondissement (€13.3). In contrast, the gender pay gap in Paris is only 6%, compared to 10% in the rest of France.

The capital is still well ahead of France's cities for its economic power, choice of courses and schools for higher education, its exceptional cultural offer, the offer of care and the quality of access to new technologies (100% ADSL coverage, wide competition from Internet operators and recently the deployment of residential fiber optic and free Wi-Fi installed by the municipality). Its environmental quality (pollution, reduced share of green spaces) remains mediocre and real estate prices have continued to peak. However, according to the Mercer index, Paris is the 33^th city in the world in terms of quality of life, with an index of 102.7. However, it ranks only in 60 th place for hygiene and health, especially disabled by its level of pollution despite the quality of its medical care.

Population income and taxation

In 2010, the median tax income per household was €32,984, placing Paris at the 9,215^th ranking among the 31,525 municipalities of more than 39 households in the metropolis.

Companies, startups, businesses

The city of Paris is experiencing a growing tertiary economy with the proliferation of service companies. Nevertheless, handicrafts and industry still represent a significant share of jobs. Trade remains attractive despite the development of large commercial areas, under-represented in Île-de-France as a proportion of the population.

In the fall of 2016, Paris had some forty startup incubators, including Station F in the former Freyssinet Hall, the world's largest startup campus. This campus was set up by entrepreneur Xavier Niel. The city is a major attraction for innovative start-ups catching up with London. The "French Tech" label has been set up.

The business services sector is the largest and accounts for one third of all Parisian establishments. As of December 31, 2001, nearly 122,300 companies employed at least one employee. Indeed, one of the characteristics of the Parisian economy is the strong presence, alongside the large headquarters, of small businesses with one to ten employees, which bring together more than a quarter of all jobs. This sector includes advisory and assistance activities, operational services, post and telecommunications, and research and development.

In 2000, the printing press-publishing industry provided the bulk of the activity with 40% of the industrial jobs in Paris, and the clothing and leather industries provided 23%. The craft sector totaled 36,237 enterprises (mostly concentrated in the north and east of the city), representing 28 per cent of the region's artisans, and gathered 123,000 employees in 2003. Services comprise 35% of the employed workforce of craft enterprises, followed by manufacturing with 28.9%, building with 22.4% and finally food with 13.7%. In 2014, the industry’s share of the Parisian economy was 3.2%, or 63,764 jobs, up from 477,000 in 1954 and 117,000 in 1999. According to a report by the ESRB, the loss is 34% between 1994 and 2004. It then subsided. The City of Paris wishes to revitalize the installation of small industry in Paris by creating, for example, industrial hotels for artisans, SMEs, technical sectors, in particular in the fields related to the environment (renewable energies, thermal renovation, energy storage or in the context of the fight against planned obsolescence.

The Parisian trade, which has remained particularly attractive far beyond the city's boundaries with nearly 80,000 premises and 30,000 retail outlets, is characterized by its extreme diversity and relatively balanced geographical distribution. Despite the emergence of a polycentric structure on the scale of the agglomeration, the Parisian commercial fabric continues to be characterized by a strong spatial continuity and a significant weight of hierarchical logic, with a wide variety of centrality levels. Nevertheless, the implantation of large areas on the periphery or the increase in leases led to major changes at the end of the ^twentieth century. The emergence or assertion of new trade specialties has gradually led to the decline of small food stores. This is the case for the highly concentrated computer shops (rue Montgallet and rue de Charenton in particular in the 12^th arrondissement) or the textile wholesale shops (Sentier district and part of the 11^th arrondissement). The massive influx of international chains of shops, mostly clothing (Celio, Zara, etc.), has further increased the phenomenon to the point that Parisians fear the rapid disappearance of the small local trade (food shops or neighborhood bookstores in particular), as has happened in many parts of London, for example. The municipality has finally exercised its right of first emption to combat this phenomenon and the local urban planning plan attempts to limit the impact of this development in the future by prohibiting, for example, the change in the allocation of a commercial space sold.

According to the master plan drawn up by the Île-de-France regional council, the metropolis expects by 2025 to create one and a half million jobs, build 500,000 offices and, above all, set up a thousand foreign companies, including Indian, Chinese and Brazilian companies, raising the growth rate from 2% to 5% per year.

The La Défense business district.

Business districts

The Paris-Nord II activity park and, at the far end, the village of Roissy-en-France (left) and the Paris-Charles-de-Gaulle airport (right).

The "Paris-La Défense" cluster, which consists of the western part of the Parisian right bank and nine communes of the Hauts-de-Seine, dominates the Paris business world. The center of Paris and the La Défense business district, in the western suburbs, which is Europe's largest business district due to its large office park. There are most of the major headquarters and high-income jobs. In the center of Paris it extends over a fairly wide perimeter around the Opera and the Saint-Lazare station. It still has a major role to play, but the prices of office real estate are particularly high and the areas are limited by the rules of town planning. Between 1994 and 2005, the number of private jobs there declined quite sharply to the near western suburbs, where Defense has a central place. La Défense, characterized by its skyscrapers, has grown since the 1960s and has three million square meters of offices and 150,000 employees. There are 1,500 companies, including fourteen of the top twenty national companies and fifteen of the top fifty global. A big stimulus package is planned for the neighborhood for years to come.

Other business districts are also located elsewhere:

Paris Rive Gauche in the 13^th arrondissement is the most advanced of the projects under development.

In the suburbs, other poles are born in areas where house prices are lower or on strategic hubs (Paris-Charles-de-Gaulle airport).

In the department of the Seine-Saint-Denis and more specifically in the intercommunal area of La Plaine Saint-Denis, many projects, some of which are classified as ZAC, are expected to radically change the former largest industrial area in Europe (as of 1 July 2008 less than 1% of the planned work had begun).

Monuments and tourist sites

The Sacred Heart Basilica.

"Tourism" in the modern sense only grew in the wake of the onset of the railway in the 1840s. One of the first attractions was, as early as 1855, the series of universal exhibitions, as many opportunities to build many new monuments in Paris, the most famous of which is the Eiffel Tower, erected for the Exhibition of 1889. These, in addition to the improvements brought to the capital under the Second Empire, have contributed greatly to making the city itself the attraction it has become.

Paris has more than 1,800 buildings listed or listed as historical monuments, including nearly 100 places of worship. The most famous monuments in Paris date from various eras. They are often in the center and on the banks of the Seine. The banks of the Seine du Pont de Sully au Pont de Bir-Hakeim are one of the most beautiful urban river landscapes and are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. You will find, from east to west: Notre-Dame Cathedral, the Louvre Palace, the Hôtel des Invalides, the Pont Alexandre-III, the Grand Palais, the Musée du quai Branly - Jacques-Chirac, the Eiffel Tower and the Trocadéro. Further east, important contemporary buildings were built: the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the François-Mitterrand website of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, etc.

On the Île de la Cité, you will find emblematic ancient monuments. The Gothic-style Notre-Dame Cathedral, built mainly from the ^12th century to the ^13th century, was very restored in the ^19th century and its western facade cleaned at the end of the ^20th century. It is symbolically the core of Paris and French road distances are measured from its square. The former palace of the Conciergerie was the seat of royal power until the reign of Charles V in the second half of the ^fourteenth century. Part of the building was then converted into a prison and was notably the place of detention of famous figures of the Ancien Regime before their execution, during the French Revolution. The Sainte-Chapelle, built near the Conciergerie, is considered a masterpiece of Gothic architecture. Pont Neuf, at the western end of the island, dating back to the end of the ^16th century, is the oldest bridge in Paris as it stands.

Classical-style monuments also mark the center of Paris. The Sorbonne Chapel in the heart of the Latin Quarter was built at the beginning of the ^17th century. The Louvre, a royal residence, was embellished in the ^17th century and retouched several times thereafter. The Hôtel des Invalides, with its famous golden dome, was erected at the end of the ^17th century in the outskirts of the city by a Louis XIV who wanted to offer a hospice to wounded soldiers. Since 15 December 1840 the ashes of Napoleon I and his tomb have been home since 2 April 1861. The Pantheon, built at the end of the ^18th century near the Sorbonne, became under the Revolution a civil temple where illustrious French people were buried.

Passage Jouffroy.

The heritage of the ^19th century is abundant in Paris, including the Arc de Triomphe, the covered passages, the Palais Garnier, built at the end of the Second Empire and at the beginning of the Third Republic and which houses the opera house of Paris, and the Eiffel Tower, a "temporary" construction erected by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 World Exposition, but which was never dismantled. It has become the symbol of Paris, visible in most parts of the city and sometimes in the immediate suburbs.

In the ^20th century, many of the greatest architects have made their mark on the streets of Paris: Guimard, Plumet or Lavirotte, references of Art Nouveau in France, then those of Mallet-Stevens, Roux-Spitz, Dudok, Henri Sauvage, Le Corbusier, Auguste Perret, etc. during the interwar period.

Contemporary architecture in Paris is represented by the Pompidou Center, a building dating back to the 1970s that houses the National Museum of Modern Art and an important public library that is freely accessible, the Arab World Institute opened in 1987, and the important achievements that President François Mitterrand wanted: the National Library of France in the new district of Paris Rive Gauche, the Bastille opera house and, probably the most famous, the Louvre pyramid, designed by architect Ieoh Ming Pei, built in the Louvre courtyard. More recently, the Musée du Quai Branly, or Musée des arts et civilizations d'Afrique, d'Océanie et des Americas, designed by Jean Nouvel, inaugurated in 2006, and the Fondation Louis-Vuitton, designed by Frank Gehry, inaugurated in 2014, have further enriched the capital's architectural and cultural diversity.

The Arch of Triumph of the Star, one of the symbols of Paris.

It is in the Louvre courtyard that the historical axis of Paris begins: it is a monumental alignment of buildings and lines of communication from the heart of the city to the west. It begins at the statue of Louis XIV in the main courtyard of the Louvre palace, passes under the Arc de Triomphe of the Carrousel and continues through the Tuileries Gardens, Place de la Concorde, the Champs-Élysées and ends at the Arc de Triomphe in the middle of Place Charles-de-Gaulle (former Place de l'Etoile). From the 1960s onwards, the perspective was extended further west by the construction of the La Défense business district, which is home to most of the tallest skyscrapers in Paris. The perspective was completed in 1989 by the construction of the Ark de la Défense.

The Montparnasse Tower and the Sacré-Coeur basilica at the top of the Montmartre hill are important landmarks in the Parisian skies due to their height. The latter is one of the emblematic places in Paris and welcomes many visitors, especially around Place du Tertre where painters and caricaturists are held.

In the 1960s, the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux, launched a major campaign to decorate the façades, which led to the film maker François Truffaut saying: "From the bleaching of Paris, it became very difficult to show Paris as it had been before."

Parks and gardens

The large octagonal basin of the Tuileries Gardens.

Paris has 463 parks and gardens, including the Bois de Boulogne and the Bois de Vincennes and fourteen cemeteries with trees. There are ancient gardens in the heart of Paris, such as Tuileries and Luxembourg gardens. The Jardin des Tuileries was created in the ^16th century, on the right bank of the Seine, close to the Louvre for the palace of the same name that is now gone. The Jardin du Luxembourg, on the left bank, was once a private dependency of the castle built for Marie de Médicis around 1625. The Jardin des Plantes, set up by Guy de La Brosse, Louis XIII's doctor, for the cultivation of medicinal plants, was the first public garden in Paris.

It is, however, in the Second Empire that Parisian gardens owe most of their present appearance. The creation of green spaces was an important facet of the ventilation policy of a city with a rapidly growing population. Under the direction of the engineer Adolphe Alphand and the landscaper Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, a new type of garden is emerging. The Bois de Boulogne and the Bois de Vincennes, then outside Paris, are fitted out: located to the far west and the far east of Paris, respectively, within the city walls, they are today, by far, the largest green spaces in the city. Some gardens in the center are being refurbished and neighborhood squares are being created. In the more recent neighborhoods, important parks are designed: Monceau (formerly known as the "madness of Chartres"), Montsouris, the Buttes-Chaumont were designed by Napoleon III's engineer.

Since the 1980s, several green spaces have been set up in areas of disused activities. The Parc de la Villette, designed by architect Bernard Tschumi on the site of the former abattoirs in Paris, is today the largest park in Paris. During the 1990s, the Parc de Bercy, the Parc André-Citroën, the Parc de Belleville and others were created. Family or educational gardens have also embellished the outskirts of the city along the old circular railway line of "Little Belt". The Jardin d'Eole, inaugurated in 2007 and the first phase of the Parc Clichy-Batignolles in 2008, are the largest parks created in Paris in the 2000s.

• Parc des Buttes-Chaumont.

• Monceau Park.

• Jardin des Tuileries.

• Montsouris Park.

• Luxembourg Garden.

Cemeteries and places of memory

The main Parisian cemeteries were located on the outskirts of the city when they were created in 1804 under Napoleon I. Several churches in Paris also had their own cemeteries, but at the end of the ^eighteenth century, it was decided to close them for safety reasons. All the bones contained in the parish cemeteries that were removed in 1786 were transferred to ancient underground quarries outside the southern gates of Paris, a place that has since become Place Denfert-Rochereau in the 14th arrondissement. These quarries are known today as the catacombs of Paris.

Although the extension of Paris has now once again included all these ancient cemeteries, these have become oases of tranquility very appreciated in a busy city. Several great figures have found rest in the Père-Lachaise cemetery. Other major cemeteries among the fourteen in Paris include Montmartre cemetery, Montparnasse cemetery, Passy cemetery and the catacombs of Paris.

New cemeteries "out of the walls" were created at the beginning of the ^20th century: the biggest are the Parisian cemetery of Saint-Ouen, the Parisian cemetery of Pantin, the Parisian cemetery of Ivry and the Parisian cemetery of Bagneux.

The Holocaust Memorial presents itself as a permanent exhibition that tells the history of the Jews of France during the Second World War by presenting documents from the documentation center of this institution.

• The Père-Lachaise cemetery.

• Montmartre Cemetery.

• Catacombs of Paris.

• Montparnasse Cemetery.

• Passy Cemetery.

Cultural heritage

Paris is a major cultural center. A tourist destination visited every year by some twenty-six million foreign tourists, Paris within the city has 143 permanent museums and eighty temporary exhibition sites, 223 in total, such as the Louvre or the Grand Palais, and exceptional sites, such as the Champs-Élysées or the Eiffel Tower. The world capital of trade fairs and conferences (5% of the world's congress activity over nearly 600,000 square meters), fashion, luxury, gastronomy, all styles of architecture, nightlife and romantic love, Paris also offers an important choice of shows, theaters and operas, and presents to a particularly cinephalic audience an unrivaled choice of films from all over the world.

The main nightlife districts are the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, from the roundabout of the Champs-Élysées to the Arc de Triomphe, the Bastille and the Rue de Lappe, the Halles district and the Marais district, the Latin Quarter to Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Montparnasse, Pigalle and Rue Oberkampampas f, famous for its bars, Rue Mouffetard, Butte-aux-Cailles, Place de la République or the banks of the Canal Saint-Martin.

In Las Vegas, a casino reconstructed the Eiffel Tower, the Arc de Triomphe and the Opera Garnier on a ½-scale. On the same principle, a Chinese developer built a "little Paris" in the suburbs of Hangzhou, China.

Museums

The Louvre Museum.

Paris and the Ile-de-France region have the largest museographic offer in France. In fact, there are no less than one hundred forty-three museums in Paris, to which there are more than 100 museums in the region. But beyond the number, it is mainly in the diversity of the collections that the greatest wealth is found.

A multi-year capital with a rich heritage, Paris attracts many visitors every year. The oldest museum, the largest in surface area and collections, is the Louvre museum. With a record of 8.3 million visitors in 2006, the Louvre is by far the most visited art museum in the world. Others also have a world reputation, such as the National Museum of Modern Art (in the Center Georges-Pompidou), dedicated to modern and contemporary art, or the Musée d'Orsay, for the art of the second half of the ^19th century (from 1848 to 1905). Near Paris, the Château de Versailles, a palace built by the Sun King and residence of the kings of France in the ^17th and ^18th centuries, also attracts several million visitors per year. The Palace and Park of Versailles have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979.

Museums can be found under various administrative statutes: the most famous are national museums, that is, belonging to the French state. In addition to the Louvre museum, the Musée d'Orsay and the Georges-Pompidou National Center for Art and Culture (National Museum of Modern Art), the Musée de Cluny (National Museum of the Middle Ages), the Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques-Chirac, the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine, the Musée national des Arts Asians-Guimet, the Palais de Tokyo, the Musée de l'Orangerie, the Musée de la Musique and the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie de la Villette, for example. Other departments include the Musée de l'Armée at the Hôtel des Invalides, the Musée de la Marine at the Palais de Chaillot and the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace du Bourget (Air and Space Museum), which are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Armies, and the National Museum of Natural History, which is under the control of National Education. There is also the Pantheon, where the "great men" of the Nation are based, such as Victor Hugo, Voltaire, Rousseau, Jean Moulin, Jean Jaurès or Marie Curie. Others are part of the Institut de France, such as the Musée Jacquemart-André, the CNAM, the Musée des Arts et Métiers, and private museums, such as the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, La Pinacothèque, the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du judaissme, the Musée de la Chasse et de la Nature, and the Musée Dapper.

The municipality owns and manages fourteen museums and municipal sites, the most famous of which are the Carnavalet Museum, dedicated to the history of Paris, close to Victor Hugo's house, the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, and the catacombs. The city also has the Musée du Petit-Palais (Musée des beaux-arts de la ville de Paris) or the Musée Cernuschi (Musée des Arts Asiais de la ville de Paris). Numerous thematic exhibitions are organized there.

• Orsay Museum.

• Rodin Museum.

• Army Museum.

• Louis Vuitton Foundation.

• Musée des beaux-arts de la Ville de Paris (Petit Palais).

Libraries and Mediatheques

Reading room of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.

Paris is home to a large number of libraries and media libraries, especially public ones. The Mazarine Library, made up of Cardinal Mazarin's personal library, is the oldest public library in France; it was opened to the public in 1643.

The Bibliothèque nationale de France is mainly located in Paris, notably on two sites: "Richelieu" located in the 2nd arrondissement and above all "François-Mitterrand" in the 13th arrondissement. It is one of the largest libraries in the world with an estimated collection of over 30 million pieces, including 14 million volumes. This public institution has been the depositary in France of the legal deposit since the reign of François I. The other major public library is the Public Information Library of the Georges-Pompidou National Center for Art and Culture.

The city runs fifty-five general interest municipal libraries and a dozen thematic municipal libraries where it is also possible to borrow certain documents. Among the most well-known are the historic library of the city of Paris, created in 1871, which has one million books and brochures, photographs, maps and maps related to the history of the city, the Médiathèque Musicale de Paris (MMP) or the library of the François-Truffaut cinema, which offers important documentation on cinema. Unlike access to the BNF and the Mazarine Library, access to municipal libraries is completely free, even though minors may be forbidden in thematic libraries. The borrowing of books, magazines, comics or scores is free, the borrowing of disks and videos comes at an annual fee.

There are also associations and private libraries, such as the Library of Decorative Arts, the Forum of Foreign Cultural Institutes in Paris, the library of the film of the Cinémathèque française. Numerous university libraries are open to the public, the most prestigious of them being the Sainte-Geneviève library.

Operas, theaters, theaters, theaters and venues

The Garnier Opera House.

The three operas in Paris are the Opéra Garnier, the Opéra Bastille and the Opéra Comique, in addition to the other occasional opera scenes such as the Théâtre du Châtelet and the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. They offer a varied repertoire of classical and modern styles.

Theater is traditionally a major part of Parisian culture. This remains true, though many of its most popular actors are also stars of French television. Paris intramural boasts more than 70,000 seats in 208 theaters and cafés-theaters. The Comédie-Française, the Théâtre de l'Odéon, the Théâtre de Chaillot or, in other ways, the Théâtre Mogador and the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse are among the main Parisian theaters. Some are also concert halls.

Legends of the French and French musical world such as Edith Piaf, Maurice Chevalier, Georges Brassens, Charles Aznavour or Jacques Brel have found glory in Parisian concert halls: Bobino, the Olympia, Les Trois Baudets, La Cigale or Le Splendid. The Pleyel room hosts numerous symphonic concerts, the Gaveau room for chamber music; More recently, the Philharmonie de Paris, at the Cité de la Musique in the Parc de la Villette, offers classical and contemporary music concerts. The Maison de Radio France offers numerous concerts of a great musical diversity.

The Élysée Montmartre mentioned below, whose size has decreased sharply, has become a concert hall. The New Morning is one of the few Parisian clubs that still offer jazz concerts, but you can hear music from other backgrounds. More recently, Le Zénith in the Villette district and the AccorHotels Arena in the Bercy district, the Palais des Congrès to the west of the capital, La Seine musicale in Boulogne-Billancourt, or even the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, the Paris La Défense Arena in Nanterre, the Parc des Princes or the Dôme de Paris - Palais des Sports, offer concerts or shows on a larger scale, some open-air.

The guinguettes and concert cafes were the backbone of Parisian entertainment before the Second World War. Early examples, before the middle of the ^19th century, include the guinguette du moulin de la Galette and the concert cafés of the Élysée Montmartre and the Château-Rouge. The popular orchestras opened the way for the Parisian accordionists whose music moved crowds to the Apollo and the java made dances in the Faubourg du Temple and Belleville. Outside the surviving clubs of that time, the modern nightclub developed: The Palace and Bains Showers, although closed today, are the most legendary examples of this in Paris. Today, much of clubbing in Paris takes place in clubs like the Star, the Cab, which are very selective. Clubs oriented towards electronic music such as Le Rex, Batofar (a boat converted into a club) or The Pulp are quite popular and the best DJs in the world offer their services. There are other concert halls, more or less large, pop or rock music or varieties or from the world, such as Le Bataclan, Le Grand Rex, Cirque d'Hiver, etc.

• French comedy.

• The Bataclan.

• The Philharmonie de Paris.

• Théâtre du Châtelet.

• The Olympia.

• The Bastille opera.

Nightclubs and cabarets

Paris has seventy-one discotheques and thirty cabarets and dinner shows, the most famous of which are the Moulin Rouge founded in 1889, where the French cancan, the Lido, the Folies Bergère, the Crazy Horse or the Paradis Latin, the dean of Parisian cabarets whose origin dates back to 1889 02, which symbolize the "Paris canaille", as well as boxes of songwriters such as the Caveau de la République and the Théâtre des Deux Anes or transvestites such as Chez Michou.

• Crazy Horse Saloon.

• Paradis Latin.

• Ball of the Moulin Rouge.

• The Folies Bergère.

Cinema

Paris has a large number of dark rooms with 88 cinemas in 2012, including 38 Art and Essai screens for about 430 screens in 2015, the largest concentration in the world per capita.) The offer is varied: around 450 to 500 films are shown every week, making Paris the city where the most different films are distributed (from the American blockbuster to the Middle Eastern art film and essay). These halls are attended by more than 28.2 million spectators per year (2011 figures), or 13% of the national audience.

A few large groups are increasingly dominant and the independent cinema is weakened. Since the 1990s, large multiplexes of UGC, Pathé or MK2 of ten to twenty rooms have been created (in Les Halles, in Bercy, etc.).

The biggest cinema in Paris is today Le Grand Rex with 2,800 seats, since the Gaumont-Palace in Place de Clichy (which had 6,000 seats) was destroyed in 1973. All other Parisian rooms now have less than 1,000 seats.

The former American Center of architect Frank O.Gehry now houses the French Cinematheque, north of the Simone-de-Beauvoir footbridge, separated by the Parc de Bercy; it faces the François-Mitterrand site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

• The French Cinema.

• Cinema The Luxor.

• Studio 28.

Cafes, restaurants and brasseries

The Café de Flore, famous Parisian café, in Saint-Germain-des-Prés.

Les Deux Magots, another famous Parisian cafe in Saint-Germain-des-Prés.

The cafes quickly became an integral part of French culture because of their appearance, especially from the opening of the Café de la Régence at the Palais-Royal in 1681 and, eight years later, the Café Procope on the left bank. Cafes in the gardens of the Palais-Royal became particularly popular during the ^18th century and can be considered the first "coffee terraces" in Paris. They did not expand until sidewalks and boulevards appeared in the mid-^19th century. During the Revolution, the chefs of the princes and nobles created the concept of a restaurant.

The first establishment to announce the "catering" seems to have been in Paris La Tour d'Argent, founded in 1582 by a certain Rourtaud; the place would have contributed to the use of the "fork" in France. The first restaurant, in the modern sense, opened in Paris, rue des Poulies, in 1765 by a broth merchant named Boulanger (named Champ d'Oiseau) who invented the "restaurant menu" and the word "restaurant", and in 1782, Antoine Beauvilliers, cook of the prince of Condé and the counte's mouth officer de Provence, takes up the formula and opens, in a refined setting, the Grande Taverne de Londres, at 26 Rue de Richelieu. This is the first real "grand restaurant" in Paris, which will stay for more than twenty years without a rival. But it was from the French Revolution that the phenomenon grew as nobles left their cooks unemployed, while many provincial cooks arrived in Paris, where they had no family to feed them. Since 1789, there are around a hundred restaurants in Paris frequented by the good company, grouped around the Palais-Royal. Thirty years later, there were 3,000.

Paris is home to some of the finest restaurants in French cuisine, including Maxim's, Le Grand Véfour, Lasserre, L'Archestrate, and La Tour d'Argent, a hotel known for its panoramic views of the Seine.

The culinary reputation of Paris is based on the diverse French origins of its inhabitants. With the arrival of the railway in the middle of the ^nineteenth century and the subsequent industrial revolution, many people from all over France arrived in the capital, bringing all the gastronomic diversity of the different regions of France and creating numerous restaurants of regional specialties, such as "Chez Jenny" for Alsatian cuisine and "Aux Lyonnais" for that of Lyon. Immigration from foreign countries has brought an even greater diversity of culinary specialties, and in addition to a large number of Italian, Maghreb and Asian cooking establishments, there are now establishments in Paris offering culinary dishes from all five continents.

• The Procope, the oldest café in Europe.

• Maxim's.

• Fouquet's.

• Restaurant Ledoyen.

• Restaurant Lasserre.

Hotels and palaces

Another consequence of the increase in the number of travelers and tourists in the capital is, from the end of the ^19th century, the presence of many hotels, partly linked to universal exhibitions. Among the most luxurious are:

• the Meurice hotel, the oldest palace in Paris, opened in 1835;
• the Grand Hotel Intercontinental, from 1862;
• the Ritz hotel, which appeared on Place Vendôme in 1898;
• the Hotel de Crillon, opened on the north side of Place de la Concorde in 1909;
• the Lutetia hotel, the first palace on the Left Bank, opened in 1910;
• the Plaza Athénée hotel, opened in 1911.

In the 1920s, during the Roaring Twenties, many establishments were created:

• the Bristol hotel, in 1925;
• the Raphael hotel, in 1925;
• the George-V hotel, in 1928;
• the Prince de Galles hotel, in 1928;
• the Royal Monceau, in 1928.

More recently, large groups, often foreign, have opened many luxury hotels:

• the Marriott Champs-Élysées hotel (1997);
• the Mandarin Oriental hotel (2011);
• the Shangri-La Hotel Paris (2012);
• The Peninsula Paris (2014).

• Hotel de Crillon.

• Hotel Lutetia.

• The Bristol.

• The Peninsula Paris.

Paris, literary and intellectual center

Bust of Molière at 31 rue du Pont-Neuf, born in reality two streets further west at 96 rue Saint-Honoré.

Since the ^12th century, the influence of its university made Paris one of the great intellectual centers of the Christian world. The adoption of the Parisian dialect by the Court affirms this vocation. During the Renaissance, the city became a home of Humanism. With the progressive centralization of power, Paris is strengthened in its cultural preeminence in France. Around the middle of the ^17th century, Paris and its lounges became the almost unique center of French literature, notably that of the hotel of Rambouillet where Malherbe, Corneille, La Rochefoucauld, Madame de Sévigné, Madame de La Fayette met, etc. In the last third of the century, the prestige of the court of Louis XIV in Versailles dwarted not that of Paris. However, classical theater and Parisian intellectual life remained active, with Molière leading the "Troupe du Roy" in 1665, which became the Comédie-Française under the patronage of the king in 1680.

During the ^18th century, Paris became the cultural center of the kingdom. The Parisian trade fairs are enjoying their greatest growth. Voltaire, in a light and ironic tone, is the Parisian writer par excellence. On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau fled this city "of noise, smoke and mud" and took refuge in Montmorency, 9 miles north of Paris, before settling there in 1770.

From the Revolution onwards, the literary world became wider, more complex. But Paris remains the heart of French intellectual life, attracting Carlo Goldoni and welcoming progressives, such as Adam Mickiewicz and Heinrich Heine, who are threatened or driven from different countries in a largely conservative Europe. During the ^XIXth and ^XXth centuries, Paris was the theater where the various French literary movements and their main figures followed, romanticism and realism with Hugo or Balzac, naturalism with Zola, Parnasse and symbolism with Baudelaire, Verlaine or Mallarme, surrealism with Apollinaire and André Breton, and from where the renaissance came Literary new brought by Proust and Celine.

The north of Boulevard Saint-Michel and its bookshops.

In the 1920s, many foreign writers come to discover Paris and draw inspiration from it in their work: Ernest Hemingway, Henry Miller, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, etc., and others attracted to his literary background, come here to seek hope for a warm welcome: D. H. Lawrence, James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Emil Cioran, Gao Xingjian, etc. Montparnasse, a neighborhood of artists since the late ^nineteenth century, knows its golden age in the interwar period. After the Second World War, Saint-Germain-des-Prés became the most famous literary home, with the presence of Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Boris Vian or Jacques Prévert. The Latin Quarter is still the booksellers' quarter and there are also 217 booksellers on the banks of the Seine. Paris is the main city of French literary activity and publishing; in many neighborhoods, buildings have a plaque that recalls a writer's stay.

Paris in arts and culture

Paris in literature

For a long time, Paris has inspired writers. In the ^15th century, François Villon plunged into the depths of Paris to begin his major work: The Testament. However, in the ^17th century and to a lesser extent in the ^18th century, the authors were not interested in describing the contemporary Parisian reality.

Les Halles inspired Émile Zola for Le Ventre de Paris (painting by Leon Lhermitte).

In the ^nineteenth century, French writers tended to describe the reality of their time more accurately. Under the monarchy of July, Honoré de Balzac seeks to paint a detailed and modern picture of French society: The Human Comedy. Paris occupies a privileged place in this work and not only in Scenes of Parisian life. He distinguishes by the diversity of networks of relations: this is where the most spectacular successes are possible, where we seek glory but also where we can fall into the most absolute anonymity.

If Balzac is interested primarily in high society or ambitious people who have lost money, then at the same time we begin to look at the popular city, which is perceived as threatening and fascinating. Studies appear on the "dangerous classes" of an expanding city. The Mysteries of Paris by Eugène Sue, who made a very large place in Paris of the underworld, enjoyed a huge success when he appeared on a soap opera in 1842-1843. Twenty years later, the other major novelist in Paris, Victor Hugo, published Notre-Dame de Paris and Les Miserables, another large works about popular Paris that became classics. Paris fascinates with a double image: a sumptuous and prestigious city (Stendhal sublime Le Frascati, Balzac sings on the Boulevard des Italiens, Nerval or Baudelaire swear only by Divan Le Pelletier) but also a popular city where vice reigns. Gérard de Nerval committed suicide there in the sordid place he could find there. Haussmann's changing Paris is widely described by Émile Zola in Les Rougon-Macquart (Le Ventre de Paris, Nana, Au Happiness des Dames); it is the setting for the wanderings and states of soul of the Parnassian and symbolist poets and especially of Baudelaire (Le Spleen de Paris). Guy de Maupassant uses the capital to portray the society of his time, as in the satire Bel-Ami (published in 1885), in which the hero climbs up the social hierarchy in Paris thanks to his mistresses and low blows.

Also in the 19th century, the city of Paris is represented in other genres than the social novel and the realistic novel. For example, Jules Verne imagines him in dystopia in his little-known novel, Paris in the twentieth century, written in 1863. The city also appears in many soap operas, such as those where the character Rocambole appears. Similarly, it serves as a place of action for historical novels such as The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas (1844). Finally, theater plays, such as the drama Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand (1897), freely inspired by the life and work of the writer Libertin Savinien de Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655).

In the early twentieth century, the capital was used as a theater for police series, such as Fantômas (by Pierre Souvestre and Marcel Allain) or Arsène Lupin (by Maurice Leblanc).

In the 1960s, writers transformed Paris into a mythical city: sometimes funny and burlesque like Zazie in the subway of Raymond Queneau or still full of memories like I remember Georges Perec.

The city still fascinates the writers of the new generation, like Patrick Modiano (and the district of Belleville), Brahim Metiba in I didn't have time to chat with you (a bus ride from Clichy-la-Garenne in the center of Paris), or Jean-François Vilar (and the district of Bastille).

Poetry also plays a role in Paris in many works: Jacques Réda and Les Ruines de Paris, Jacques Roubaud and The shape of a city changes faster, unfortunately, than the heart of humans.

Paris in painting and sculpture

Camille Pissarro, bridge Neuf, 1902.

Paris has been an inspiration to many artists who have spread its image around the world.

There are few representations of the city in some medieval paintings and miniatures, but the paintings depicting Paris only multiplied significantly from the Wars of Religion at the end of the ^16th century. It is under the reigns of Henri IV and Louis XIII that the city is represented by Jacques Callot and by the Dutch painters De Verwer and Zeeman, especially the banks of the Seine that fascinate them. The Louvre became a favorite theme in the ^17th century, but it was not until the trend of open-air painting in the ^19th century that artists became interested in Parisian life and the changing urban landscape. Corot plants its easel on the banks of the Seine, Monet represents the vaporous atmosphere of the Saint-Lazare station, Renoir describes the life of Montmartre (Moulin de la galette, Moulin rouge), Pissarro painted the Pont Neuf and Sisley the Île Saint-Louis. Then, at the turn of the century, Seurat, Gauguin (Parisians by birth), Cézanne and Van Gogh largely represented Paris in their work. Toulouse-Lautrec is perhaps the most Parisian in its soul, but he is more interested in the Parisian cabarets and shallows, which he regularly frequents, than in the landscapes. In the ^20th century, the most Parisian painters are certainly Matisse, Vlaminck, Derain, and Marquet or Utrillo, who often represent the city's poor neighborhoods. Picasso, van Dongen and Dumont lead a bohemian life at the Bateau-Lavoir in Montmartre while Léger, Modigliani, Chagall, Zadkine, Csaky and Soutine settle in the Hives workshops in Montparnasse; it is the golden age of the Paris school that gives way to surrealism after the Second World War.

The sculptors François Rude (La Marseillaise, the strongest composition of the Arc de Triomphe) and Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux with the fountain of the Observatory precede the great masters of the late ^19th century whose countless works decorate the Parisian public road: Rodin, Dalou (Jardin du Luxembourg, Place de la Nation), Bourdelle (Palais de Tokyo), Maillol (Jardin des Tuileries) and Paul Landowski (Saint Geneviève at the Pont de la Tournelle). Art Nouveau found an amazing outlet in 1900 with the nascent Paris metro station, where Guimard adorned dozens of entrance doors. For example, contemporary art can be found at the Palais-Royal with the columns of Buren or at Beaubourg with the Stravinsky fountain.

Paris in music and song

Jean Béraud, La Marseillaise, 1880.

Paris is a theme and setting for countless songs and musical works.

The musical tradition in Paris dates back to the Middle Ages with the creation at the end of the ^12th century of the École Polyphonique de Notre-Dame, whose works express medieval faith. Under François I, the French musical printing press was born in Paris and the first popular songs appeared. Under the reign of Louis XIV, the great operas were represented in Paris: Lully settled there and became responsible for the music of the Court. Its ballets are represented at the Louvre from 1655. In the ^18th century, Rameau accentuated the role of the orchestra in its ballets operas, music is the order of the day in the lounges. The history of France also influences Parisian music: Many popular songs were created during the French Revolution; the Carmagnole became the anthem of the Sans-culottes in 1792. In the ^19th century, Paris became the capital of music, more by the great foreign masters like Rossini and Gaetano Donizetti and even Richard Wagner, whom it attracted by its influence than through its own compositions. The music gradually evolved towards Romanticism, embodied for example by Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt. Gounod renews opera lyrics while Berlioz imports descriptive music.

The festive music of Paris dances in the ^19th century is famous worldwide. Played especially at the time of the Paris Carnival, it influences traditional music and foreign composers. Among them is Johann Strauss, father, who came to Paris at the invitation of Philippe Musard, then very famous. The latter, as well as dozens of other famous Parisian composers at the time (Jullien, Tolbecque, etc.).

After 1870, Dukas, Saint-Saëns or Bizet made France the master of ballet music. The national character of music comes back with Ravel and Debussy, impressionist musicians. The end of the ^19th century was also the time of the singers whose Le Chat noir was the emblematic place of representation, immortalized by Toulouse-Lautrec. In the ^20th century, the songs of Edith Piaf, the "môme de Paris", as well as those of Maurice Chevalier embodied the popular Parisian song all over the world. More recently, Jacques Dutronc sang in 1968 "It's 5 o'clock, Paris is awakening" and Dalida becomes one of the most famous Montmartroises, a place of the Butte bears his name and a bust was erected in his homage ten years after his death.

Paris in photography

Brouhot Phaeton in Paris in 1910.

Since the invention of photography, many artists have sought to capture the atmosphere of the city and its daily life caught on the edge. Initiated by Eugène Atget (1857-1927), the photograph of scenes of streets and small trades that are now missing is embodied by Robert Doisneau (1912-1994), one of the first great photographers in Paris. The unusual scenes were his favorite subjects: children playing in the streets, concierges, bistros, markets, etc. His photographs are full of humor and tenderness, the most famous being The Kiss of the City Hall. The images of Willy Ronis evoke the Belleville and the Menilmontant of yesteryear, vivid illustration of a popular atmosphere that is forever vanished. Marcel Bovis (1904-1997) represented the magic of Paris at night.

Paris at the cinema

The Collignon grocery store in Montmartre, appearing in the film the Fabulous Fate of Amélie Poulain.

Paris is one of the most filmed cities in the world. In addition to the large French production, the foreign directors who chose it as the setting are numerous.

Among a long list of films, some masterpieces of French cinema have become classics. Hôtel du Nord (1938) was the setting of Arletty's famous replica "Atmosphere, atmosphere, do I have an atmosphere hangover?"; the small hotel on the banks of the Canal Saint-Martin, where the film was not shot, has become a place of cinema pilgrimage.

The Traversée de Paris (1956) and The Last Metro (1980) recall a certain reality of the occupation, while Paris burns? (1966) refers to the liberation of Paris in August 1944. More recently, everyone is looking for a cat (1996) is a slice of life in a Parisian building showing the isolation in a big metropolis and the solidarity that can exist there. Finally, the Fabulous Destin d'Amélie Poulain (2001), a contemporary tale in a mythical and timeless Paris, has met a popular international success and brought many cinephiles to Montmartre in search of emblematic locations for filming.

Great international film hits, like Everyone says I love you (1996) or Miduit in Paris (2011) by Woody Allen, Moulin Rouge! (2001) or Da Vinci code (2006), have chosen the city as the setting. In 2007, thanks to its image and its position as the capital of gastronomy, Paris was chosen as the setting for the action of the American animated film Ratatouille.

In addition, Paris appears in many recent films like La Mémoire dans la peau (2002) with Matt Damon, which takes place largely in Paris, or Anything can happen (2003) with Jack Nicholson, who dines in the restaurant Le Grand Colbert at the end of the film. The choral film by Cédric Klapisch Paris (2008) takes place exclusively there. In 2010, Paris was also the residence of Fabrice Luchini in Les Femmes du 6e étage. Paris also appears in the film Inception (2010) as well as in much of the impossible mission: Fallout (2018).

Paris in popular culture

The "Parisian" slang revealed by ^19th century writers such as Victor Hugo, Eugène Sue and Balzac remained very much alive in Paris until the 1950s. The sociological and ethnic evolution of the Parisian population explains in large part the "death" of Parisian slang, which is no longer really practiced on the street, but which has long been the joy of readers of novels like San Antonio, spectators of films spoken by Michel Audiard or listeners of songs by Pierre Perret, Renaud (Parisian titi par excellence) or sketches by Coluche. Since then, the gentrification of the capital and the mass influx of provincial and foreign populations have gradually contributed to the disappearance of Parisian slang, supplanted by verlan and new forms of expression developed in the suburbs, possibly punctuated by words borrowed from foreign languages, such as English or Arabic.

Paris is often called the "City of Light". The origin of this perimeter comes from the creation of public lighting in Paris by Gabriel Nicolas de La Reynie, in the ^seventeenth century.

Paris is colloquially known as "Paname", a nickname given in the early ^twentieth century to Parisians who adopted the hat called panama, put in vogue by the workers who dug the canal of the same name at the beginning of the ^twentieth century. This very practical cap was exported mainly to the United States and Europe; she had gone mad in Paris where all the men wore a panama. This hat has given rise to many songs, notably the Paname of Leo Ferré, a melancholic declaration of love to the capital, which will earn the singer his first great success.

More formerly, Paris and Pantin, one of its close suburbs, were barely nicknamed "Pantruche" (hence the name of the Parisian Carnival Company "les Fumantes de Pantruche", present at the Carnival of Paris).

"Parigot" is a slang term for a Parisian. This term is generally considered derogatory or at least mocking.

Paris in video games

The city is reproduced in the video game The Saboteur, released in 2009, with most of the city's biggest monuments. The game takes place at the very beginning of the Second World War. It is also reproduced in the Midtown Madness 3 and Midnight Club II car video game. Part of the scenario takes place in Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness, and a mission takes place at the very beginning of the game 007: Nightfire. In November 2011, missions were also held in Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3. In addition, a map of Battlefield 3 can be found in the multiplayer mode that takes place in Paris (Operation Metro and crossing the Seine) as well as in its solo mode. Paris also appears in the Remember Me game, taking place in the city of Néo-Paris, a more technological version of the City of Light. The Killing Floor 2 video game offers to fight in a devastated Paris.

In the role video game Pokémon X and Y, developed by Game Freak and released in 2013, "Illumis" (the name refers to the City of Light) the largest city in the Kalos region (inspired by France) is a fictional representation of Paris in which you can find many cafes, taxis, etc. The city is cut in two by a river, the Seine, which separates the southern street (Left Bank) from the northern street (Right Bank); the center of the city is occupied by the Prismatic Tower (the Eiffel Tower), all connected by five squares and four avenues bearing the names of months of the revolutionary calendar.

In the Assassin's Creed Unity game, released in October 2014 by the Ubisoft studio series Assassin's Creed Unity, the entire plot and main action takes place in Paris during the French Revolution. The city is fully modeled at almost the 1:1 scale as it was from 1789 to 1794. The main monuments are reconstructed with a lot of detail (including those that disappeared, such as the Bastille and the Tuileries Palace), and the developers sought to recreate the popular atmosphere during this period. Here the violent and bloody character of the Parisian society of the time is very emphasized. With the gaming experience taking place in a so-called open world, the player is encouraged to explore this historic reenactment of Paris at a momentous moment in his history.

In the game World of Tanks, Paris is one of the playable cards. This is a representation of the surrounding area. Like many of the maps of the game, it can be heard over 1 km², here around the Palais de Chaillot, all on the right bank of the Seine. The Eiffel Tower is visible but inaccessible. Paris is a summer menu, reserved for rows VIII to X. The map is not a true representation of the exact layout of the streets, but it is directly inspired by the architectural style of the city. The Equestrian Statue of Marshal Foch is also represented.

Paris in ninth art (comic book)

Paris and comics are old friends. From the beginning of the century, pioneering creators of the ninth art make the capital the perfect setting for the adventures of their characters. In 1905, Annak Labornez appeared, better known as Bécassine, who soon went to work in Paris at the Marquise de Grand'Air. In 1908, three authentic Parigots started to walk around the Parisian pavé, following their filmmaking and scams of all kinds: Croquignol, Ribouldingue and Filochard become famous under the name of the Nickel Feet.

After the war, the comic book is unquestionably Belgian, with two major schools: the Clear Line for Le Journal de Tintin, under the direction of Hergé, and the school of Marcinelle for Spirou, inspired by Joseph Gillain. It began its migration to France and Paris in 1959, with the creation by René Goscinny, Albert Uderzo and Jean-Michel Charlier de Pilote. It is in France that the comic book begins its renewal, seeing authors such as Philippe Druillet, Giraud, Fred...

In 1978, Casterman launched his own newspaper, (To be followed), an ambitious magazine that saw the explosion of the most Parisian comic book authors, Jacques Tardi, whose many of his works take place in the city of light, in particular with Les Aventures extraordinary d'Adèle Blanc-Sec, a series reconstituting the Paris of the Belle Époque, in a parody of novels popular at the time, but also in his various adaptations of novels by several authors, such as Leo Malet (Nestor Burma), Pierre Siniac (The Secret of the Strangler) or even Jean Vautin (The Cry of the People).

Edgar P. Jacobs, author of Blake and Mortimer, is also an outstanding artist in this field, with no less than three albums taking place in Paris and its region. Thus, in S.O.S. Meteores (1958 - 1959; taking place in the capital and in the department of Yvelines) and L'affaires du colllier (1965 - 1966; exclusively in this city), the different places visited by the characters are represented in a very realistic way. In the adventure Le Trap diabolical (1960 - 1961), you can only see Paris very stealthily, at the beginning and at the end, the adventure taking place mainly in the municipality of La Roche-Guyon (Val-d'Oise).

Paris (under the ancient name of Lutèce) appears in no less than four adventures of Asterix, a series produced by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. It serves as the setting for the second adventure, La Serpe d'or (1962), in which heroes fight against a network of gold serp traffickers. Then, the Gallic city serves as a second stop in The Tower of Gaul of Asterix (1965), where they buy cured ham and, above all, meet their future dog Idéfix (which will be named from the next album). It appears at the beginning of the story Les Lauriers de César (1972), where the plot is set: the chef Abraracourcix makes a drunkard bet with his brother-in-law (caricature by Parisien), in which the heroes will be involved. Finally, it is at the center of Olympic Lutetia, a short story written and drawn by Albert Uderzo (which will be published in Asterix and the Gallic Entrance, gathering several stories), aimed at supporting Paris's (unsuccessful) bid for the 1992 Summer Olympics. In addition, Lutetia is often mentioned in the series, giving the impression of being the capital of Gaul (in order to better give the reader the feeling that the series is taking place in the present time), while the capital of the Gauls was Lugdunum (the ancient Lyon), from 27 BC.

Today, the main publishers are in Paris, in line with the pioneers of the early century such as the Offenstadt dynasty and their Parisian Publishing Society. And it was in Paris that the new comic book took root, with young independent authors: Joann Sfar, Lewis Trondheim, Jean-Christophe Menu, Winshluss, David B...

Main comic books set in the city of Paris: There was once a girl I met twice from Davy Mourier, Kiki de Montparnasse by José-Louis Bocquet, Louis la Lune de Alban Guillemois, The Mystery Eiffel Tower by Armand Guérin and Fabien Lacaf, Black Rooms by Olivier Bleire ys and Yomgui Dumont, Le Diable Amoureux and other films never shot by Méliès de Fabien Vehlmann and Franz Duchazeau...

Paris, the capital of cinema

The first public cinematographic projection was made in Paris on 28 December 1895 by Antoine Lumière, showing the exit of a factory in Lyon, where the camera was invented. It is also in Paris that Georges Méliès (1861-1938) invented the "art of cinema" and the cinematographic show: before him the films are only documentaries or technical demonstrations. Georges Méliès is known for the developments he brought to the techniques of cinema, mainly in the field of screenplay and tricks. He is the first director and creator of the first Cinema Studio.

The first public screening of digital cinema in Europe was conducted in Paris on February 2, 2000, by Philippe Binant.

The Paris of Famous Words

The history of France and that of its capital have long been intimately connected, from the "Paris is worth a Mass" (attributed to Henri IV who left his life there) to the "Paris, Paris outraged! Broken Paris! Martyred Paris! but Paris liberated!" (the famous phrase of General de Gaulle was uttered in his speech at 7 p.m., on the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, on the evening of August 25, 1944, the day of the Liberation of Paris).

People from Paris

Heraldic, flag, logotype and currency

• Logotype of Paris City Hall from ^[When?] to 2018.

• Logotype of the city of Paris since January 2019.

	The weapons of Paris are blasted like this: "From moules to nave equipped and dressed in silver sailing on waves of the same movement of the tip, to chef sesu d'azur flowered with gold" The Paris flag consists of two vertical strips, blue and red (which are the origin of the blue and red colors of the present French tricolor flag, joined with the white symbol of the monarchy) with the city's coat of arms. The motto of Paris is Fluctuat nec mergitur, which means in Latin: "He is beaten by the waves, but does not go dark". It evokes the ship represented on the coat of arms of the city, symbol of the corporation of Nautes or Merchants of Water, powerful in the ancient time of the city. The patron saint of the city is Saint Geneviève, who would have pushed Attila and the Huns out of the city in the fifth century through her prayers. His castle is now at the church of Saint-Etienne-du-Mont. The town hall also has a logotype featuring blue and red colors and the nave's design, which is in place until January 2019.

References

References from the town hall website

Data provided by the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE)

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Other sources

Bibliography

The partial bibliography below only mentions the titles that were used in the drafting of the article. The detailed article provides a more complete bibliography.

• Marcel Le Clère, Paris from Prehistory to the present day, Éd. Bordessoules, 1985, 705 p.

• Alfred Fierro, History and Dictionary of Paris, Paris, Éd. Robert Laffont, 1996, 1580 p. (ISBN 2-221-07862-4)..

Other bibliographic items

• Alfred Colling, The Prodigious History of the Stock Exchange, Society of Economic and Financial Publishing, 1949..  
• François Billaut, "Architecture: an unfinished ambition", Viewpoint History, ^No 10 "Napoleon ^I: the peak of the Empire", ‎ December 2011 (ISSN 2112-4728)..

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